Review
Open access
Jul 2026
Mechanisms underlying the failure of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in glioblastoma: Therapeutic challenges and opportunities
A dual-source PD-L1 framework is proposed to discuss the potential contributions of tumor cell-derived and immune cell-derived PD-L1 to GBM-mediated immunosuppression and therapeutic response and a multilayer resistance model involving the blood–brain barrier, an immunologically cold tumor microenvironment, and compensatory immunosuppressive networks is outlined.
Junlin Lu, Xuxin Zhang
· Eurasian Journal of Medicine... · 0 citations