Neurophysiological and biological effects of music-based interventions in ADHD: a mini review
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is increasingly recognized as a lifespan neurodevelopmental condition. Because musical perception and production engage auditory, attentional, motor, emotional, and regulatory systems simultaneously, music-based interventions have emerged as promising complementary approaches for ADHD. However, their underlying neurophysiological and systemic biological correlates remain insufficiently understood. This mini review synthesizes evidence on behavioral, neurophysiological, and biological effects of music-based interventions in ADHD using a narrative approach. Current evidence suggests that music-based interventions may influence domains related to attention, impulse control, emotional regulation, and broader behavioral functioning. Neurophysiological findings indicate potential effects on auditory processing, interhemispheric synchronization, and cortical oscillatory activity, as demonstrated using MRI, MEG, and EEG. Preliminary systemic biological findings further suggest modulation of stress-related and autonomic processes, including cortisol, serotonin, heart rate, blood pressure, and heart-rate variability. Importantly, almost all studies identified in this review were conducted in children and adolescents, despite ADHD being increasingly recognized as a lifespan condition. Consequently, the generalizability of current findings to adults with ADHD remains uncertain. Furthermore, the available evidence base is limited by small sample sizes, inconsistent reporting standards, multimodal intervention designs, and insufficient control of medication effects. Overall, music-based interventions represent a promising but still insufficiently characterized approach for ADHD. Future research should integrate behavioral, neurophysiological, and biological outcomes within adequately powered, mechanistically informed, and developmentally sensitive study designs to clarify therapeutic mechanisms and clinical relevance across the lifespan.