Adaptive immunity relies on T-cell receptor (TCR) recognition of non-self epitopes, short peptides presented by the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) on the cell surface. Accurate computational prediction of TCR-epitope binding would unlock the development of targeted immunotherapies, such as cancer vaccines and TCR T cell therapies, while simultaneously deepening our fundamental understanding of self/nonself discrimination, pathogen recognition, and autoimmunity. We created an ensemble approach (enFoldX) that leverages structure prediction models such as AlphaFold3 to build sensitive binding predictors. enFoldX can distinguish T cell reactivity between peptides that differ by a single amino acid substitution, as needed for cancer neoantigens. enFoldX utilizes a customized highly parallelized workflow which allows us to produce ensembles of predicted protein structures at scale and train classifiers to infer reactivity based on distributions of engineered structure features and alignment confidence metrics. While state-of-the-art sequence-based approaches we evaluated could predict well for observed TCRs and epitopes close in sequence to training data, their applicability to novel sequences was limited. Conversely, our ensemble approach is the only model that showed true generalizability to novel datasets and even across species. Moreover, our ensemble approach outperforms the current co-folding methods which rely on predictions from the single top ranked structure. By leveraging the entire protein universe at scale, structure ensembles therefore enable classifiers that reflect physical free energies, providing a tractable path towards TCR T therapy design at the sensitivity required for cancer neoantigen discrimination and imparting lessons for a wide array of complex binding problems.
Olga Lyudovyk, Jonathan A. Levine, Melissa Pathil, Stephen Martis, Yuval Elhanati, Vinod P. Balachandran, Quaid Morris, Benjamin D. Greenbaum. enFoldX: AI classification of AlphaFold3-derived structural ensembles enables T cell specificity prediction [abstract]. In: Proceedings of AACR Drug Discovery and Development (AACR D3) Conference; 2026 Jul 21-24; Boston, MA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Clin Cancer Res 2026;32(14_Suppl):Abstract nr PR004.
O. Lyudovyk, Jonathan A. Levine, M. Pathil et al.· Clinical Cancer Research· 0 citations
Adaptive immunity relies on T-cell receptor (TCR) recognition of non-self epitopes, short peptides presented by the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) on the cell surface. Accurate computational prediction of TCR-epitope binding would unlock the development of targeted immunotherapies, such as cancer vaccines and TCR T cell therapies, while simultaneously deepening our fundamental understanding of self/nonself discrimination, pathogen recognition, and autoimmunity. We created an ensemble approach (enFoldX) that leverages structure prediction models such as AlphaFold3 to build sensitive binding predictors. enFoldX can distinguish T cell reactivity between peptides that differ by a single amino acid substitution, as needed for cancer neoantigens. enFoldX utilizes a customized highly parallelized workflow which allows us to produce ensembles of predicted protein structures at scale and train classifiers to infer reactivity based on distributions of engineered structure features and alignment confidence metrics. While state-of-the-art sequence-based approaches we evaluated could predict well for observed TCRs and epitopes close in sequence to training data, their applicability to novel sequences was limited. Conversely, our ensemble approach is the only model that showed true generalizability to novel datasets and even across species. Moreover, our ensemble approach outperforms the current co-folding methods which rely on predictions from the single top ranked structure. By leveraging the entire protein universe at scale, structure ensembles therefore enable classifiers that reflect physical free energies, providing a tractable path towards TCR T therapy design at the sensitivity required for cancer neoantigen discrimination and imparting lessons for a wide array of complex binding problems.
Olga Lyudovyk, Jonathan A. Levine, Melissa Pathil, Stephen Martis, Yuval Elhanati, Vinod P. Balachandran, Quaid Morris, Benjamin D. Greenbaum. enFoldX: AI classification of AlphaFold3-derived structural ensembles enables T cell specificity prediction [abstract]. In: Proceedings of AACR Drug Discovery and Development (AACR D3) Conference; 2026 Jul 21-24; Boston, MA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Clin Cancer Res 2026;32(14_Suppl):Abstract nr A028.
O. Lyudovyk, Jonathan A. Levine, M. Pathil et al.· Clinical Cancer Research· 0 citations
