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Author

Xuxin Zhang

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Review Open access Jul 2026

Mechanisms underlying the failure of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in glioblastoma: Therapeutic challenges and opportunities

A dual-source PD-L1 framework is proposed to discuss the potential contributions of tumor cell-derived and immune cell-derived PD-L1 to GBM-mediated immunosuppression and therapeutic response and a multilayer resistance model involving the blood–brain barrier, an immunologically cold tumor microenvironment, and compensatory immunosuppressive networks is outlined.

Junlin Lu, Xuxin Zhang · 0 citations