Concentrations, Human Health Risks, Household Knowledge and Awareness of Heavy Metal Contamination in Ogbanokwute Spring Water, Enugu State, Nigeria

Abstract

Heavy metal contamination of drinking water poses significant environmental and public health concerns due to the persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation of these pollutants. Consequently, the objective of this paper was to evaluate the Concentrations, Human Health Risks, Household Knowledge and Awareness of Heavy Metal Contamination in Ogbanokwute Spring Water, Enugu State, Nigeria using appropriate standard methods including structured questionnaire administered to 360 households. Chromium, lead, arsenic, and silver were not detected, while cadmium, aluminium, and zinc concentrations were within the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits. Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI) values (19.80 and 58.92), Metal Index (MI) values (0.658 and 1.537), and Degree of Contamination (Cd) values (−6.342 and −5.463) indicated low levels of contamination. Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Total Hazard Index (THI) values were below 1, indicating negligible non-carcinogenic health risks. Respondents demonstrated low-to-moderate knowledge and low awareness of the health effects of heavy metal contamination despite their heavy reliance on untreated spring water. Although the spring water is currently safe for consumption, inadequate public awareness may increase future vulnerability should contamination occur. Overall, Ogbanokwute Spring Water is presently safe for drinking with respect to heavy metal contamination. However, continuous water quality monitoring and community-based environmental health education are recommended. By integrating water quality assessment, human health risk evaluation, and community perception, this study provides evidence to support informed drinking water management and public health interventions.