Probabilistic and sensitive dietary risk assessment of sixteen legacy and emerging organophosphorus flame retardants in the Taiwanese populations: A food market basket study.

Abstract

Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are widely used additive chemicals that can migrate into food during production, processing, and packaging, yet data on their occurrence and dietary risk in Taiwan remain limited. In this study, a validated high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method was established for the determination of 16 legacy and emerging OPFRs in 150 commercial food samples covering 15 major food categories available on the Taiwanese market. Population exposure was further evaluated by Monte Carlo simulation across 14 age- and sex-specific groups. OPFRs were widely detected in the sampled products, with tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP) showing the highest detection frequency. Contamination was heterogeneously distributed across food categories, with the highest levels observed in sauces and seasonings, particularly spice sauces, and elevated concentrations also found in oils, poultry, seafood, whole grains, and livestock products. Processed foods generally contained higher OPFR levels than their unprocessed counterparts. Food lipid content was positively associated with ΣOPFR concentrations, but packaging-related differences could not be substantiated due to limited sample size. Dietary exposure varied markedly by age, with the highest modeled intakes observed in children aged 3-6 years, followed by infants aged 0-3 years. TCIPP and trimethyl phosphate (TMP) were the major contributors to total dietary exposure. Despite these differences, all endpoint-specific non-carcinogenic risks remained below the level of concern (hazard index, HI < 1), and estimated carcinogenic risks for TMP, TCEP, TNBP, and TEHP were below 10-6. Overall, these findings indicate no immediate dietary health concern based on this market snapshot under the current assessment scenario, while supporting continued monitoring and refined cumulative risk assessment, particularly for young children and highly processed foods.