Aug 2026· Molecules· Vol 31, pp. 2866· 1 citation· 162 references
Medicine
TL;DR
Key challenges remain, particularly digestive instability, uncertain systemic bioavailability, bitterness, safety standardization, and limited human clinical evidence, so future work should prioritize standardized extraction and analytical methods, optimized delivery systems, and robust clinical trials.
Abstract
Interest in sustainable protein sources is increasing because of environmental concerns related to animal agriculture and the growing burden of chronic non-communicable diseases. Plant-derived bioactive peptides (PDBAPs), amino acid sequences released from dietary proteins, are gaining attention because experimental studies have reported activities relevant to hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and cancer-associated processes. Although animal proteins have long been major sources of bioactive peptides, plant materials may offer advantages such as abundance, potentially lower production costs, and broad cultural acceptability; however, these benefits depend on the source, processing requirements, safety, and scale-up conditions. This review integrates plant sources, processing technologies, proposed mechanisms of action, and translational barriers. Current research covers traditional sources, including legumes and cereals, as well as agro-industrial by-products such as potato peels, spent coffee grounds, and broccoli stems. Modern processing strategies increasingly combine enzymatic hydrolysis or microbial fermentation with process-assisting technologies, including ultrasound treatment and subcritical water processing, to improve protein recovery or peptide release. Recent studies also examine proposed mechanisms of PDBAP activity, including Keap1/Nrf2-associated responses and inhibition of enzymes involved in metabolic disorders. Evidence is interpreted according to the stage of experimental validation, from computational prediction and cell-free assays to cellular, animal, and human studies. Key challenges remain, particularly digestive instability, uncertain systemic bioavailability, bitterness, safety standardization, and limited human clinical evidence. Future work should prioritize standardized extraction and analytical methods, optimized delivery systems, and robust clinical trials.
Plant protein-derived bioactive peptides have attracted increasing interest as potential ingredients for health-promoting functional foods because of their reported cardiometabolic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, gastrointestinal, and satiety-related activities. However, the field remains dominated by peptide discovery, in silico prediction, enzyme-inhibition assays, simulated digestion, and preclinical models, whereas successful translation into clinically supported and technologically viable food products is still limited. This review critically examines the gap between mechanistic promise and functional food implementation. It integrates evidence on plant protein sources, peptide-generation strategies, structure–activity relationships, gastrointestinal stability, intestinal transport, local gut activity, food-matrix interactions, processing effects, encapsulation, sensory constraints, human efficacy, regulatory substantiation, commercial feasibility, and consumer acceptance. Particular attention is given to the limited predictive value of isolated in vitro activity when peptides are exposed to digestion, epithelial barriers, complex food matrices, realistic processing conditions, and achievable dietary doses. The review also highlights that systemic absorption is not the only relevant pathway, as selected peptides may act locally within the gastrointestinal tract. Overall, the evidence indicates that peptide discovery should not be treated as the principal endpoint of research. Future progress will require translation-oriented development in which bioactivity, digestion stability, matrix compatibility, sensory quality, manufacturing reproducibility, realistic intake, human evidence, and regulatory credibility are evaluated as interdependent criteria. The most promising plant-derived peptides will therefore be those that retain sufficient activity and acceptability under real conditions of food production and consumption.
M. Czernicka, Patrycja Sowa-Borowiec, A. Wondołowska-Grabowska· Nutrients· 0 citations
As a sustainable plant protein resource, wheat germ protein (WGP) has attracted increasing attention because of its high digestibility, balanced essential amino acid profile, and broad potential in functional food development. However, its industrial application remains limited by processing bottlenecks and an incomplete understanding of its structure-function relationships and molecular mechanisms of action. This review systematically summarizes the structural characteristics, digestion behavior, and functional properties of WGP, and further evaluates its incorporation into diverse food matrices, particularly bakery products, meat analogues, and other functional formulations. In addition, current evidence on the physiological activities of WGP and its derived bioactive peptides is critically examined, with emphasis on antioxidant, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, and metabolic regulatory effects, together with the signaling pathways involved. Available studies indicate that WGP-derived peptides exert health-promoting effects not only through activation of key pathways such as Nrf2 and AMPK, but also through modulation of systemic homeostasis via the gut-brain and gut-liver axes. Overall, this review highlights the need to move beyond conventional nutritional fortification toward a mechanism-oriented design strategy, and provides a theoretical basis for the development of next-generation functional foods and specialized medical nutrition products based on WGP.
Long Pan, Jing Cai, Ai-Mei Liao et al.· Critical reviews in food sci...· 0 citations
Abstract The recent growth in plant protein consumption has increased the need to address deficiencies in plant proteins compared with animal-derived foods. Plant proteins are less digestible, have a partial essential amino acid composition, and lack the inherent structure found in meat, which must be modified according to demand. Plant protein sources derived from cereals, legumes, or oilseeds exhibit distinct functional characteristics that help determine their suitability for various food products, such as egg substitutes, milk substitutes, and meat alternatives. Structuring techniques, such as physical, enzymatic, chemical, and emerging technologies, help accurately imitate the texture and functionality of animal-derived foods. Despite advancements, the future challenges to restructured protein products will lie in creating anisotropies, removing undesired flavours, retaining essential amino acids, or commercialising the use of expensive technologies such as high-energy-intensive. The future must focus on biotransformation, new protein sources, formulation modelling via artificial intelligence, and processing for the circular economy.
Bhavana Manne Rajanna, Dharani Peetha, Jayalakshmi Jaganathan et al.· International Journal of Foo...· 0 citations
Plant based protein possesses significant potential in the food sector due to its economic, nutritional, and sustainability benefits. However, the presence of limiting factors in terms of digestibility, off flavors, and techno functionality reduces the appeal of plant proteins. Fermentation is a biological modification process to counteract these limiting factors, which modifies protein structure, functional properties (solubility, hydrophobicity, WHC/OHC, emulsion etc.), alters the amino acids, and forms flavor active metabolites. This review critically evaluates microbial interventions applied at different stages of plant protein isolation, highlighting their effects on protein functionality, flavor‐active metabolite formation, and gut health alongside a detailed discussion of microbial proteolytic pathways. The textural and flavor changes in protein products after fermentation are also discussed. Various plant sources, such as peas, legumes, millets, etc., along with different microbial strains (Lactic acid bacteria (LAB),
Bacillus, Aspergillus
, and
Saccharomyces
, etc.), physical conditions (time, temperature, pH) provide an impressive extent of microbial interaction during the fermentation process. Further systemic studies are required to understand the role of distinctive microorganisms and their biochemical pathways to determine the effect of different factors on the protein molecular level, leading to their quality and functional enhancements. Hence, fermentation can act as a fascinating biochemical process for the quality enhancements for the future development of modified, nutritious, and pleasant plant proteins to fulfill consumer requirements.
Disha, M. Madhumita, Dharmender Kumar et al.· Food Bioengineering· 0 citations
This work explores the development of animal-free proteins produced in laboratory settings using innovative technologies such as precision fermentation, submerged fermentation, plant cell culture, and molecular engineering, which enable the production of high-quality proteins without relying on animal farming or large-scale traditional agriculture.
Protein hydrolysates (PHs) have emerged as a pivotal category of plant biostimulants in sustainable agriculture. They are derived from the enzymatic, chemical, or thermal hydrolysis of agro-industrial by-products of animal or plant origin. These complex mixtures of free amino acids, oligopeptides, and polypeptides enhance crop productivity, nutrient use efficiency, and abiotic stress resilience. This review examines and compares the production methods, chemical composition, agronomic performance, physiological mechanism, and safety profiles of animal-derived (A-PHs) and vegetal-derived (V-PHs) protein hydrolysates, with particular emphasis on hydrolyzed collagen (HC) as an emerging biostimulant. Furthermore, the specific physiological roles of proline in mediating plant stress tolerance and hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins in maintaining cell wall integrity are evaluated. Animal-derived sources, including collagen, keratin, and fish by-products, are characterized by elevated glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline concentrations, amino acids with established roles in root architecture promotion, reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging, and osmotic adjustment under stress. Conversely, V-PH exhibit richer bioactive peptide profiles and superior environmental sustainability indices. Underlying mechanisms encompass hormone-like activities mimicking auxin and gibberellin signaling, transcriptional reprogramming of nitrogen assimilation pathways, antioxidant enzyme modulation, and rhizosphere microbiota stimulation.