Adaptive Socio-Technical-Ecological Systems in Smart Cities: Bridging Implementation Gaps for Inclusive Governance in the Global South

Abstract

Since Angelidou (2015) conceptualized smart cities as a conjuncture of four forces—technological, institutional, socio-economic and environmental—such initiatives have expanded rapidly, especially in the Global South. However, a decade of implementation has exposed significant gaps between policy ambitions and actual outcomes. This study reframes smart cities as adaptive socio-technical-ecological systems and examines their dynamic interactions through comparative case analysis of projects in Pune, Faridabad, Bhubaneswar (India) and Medellín (Colombia). Using official reports, audits and secondary data, findings reveal that technological determinism frequently exacerbates socio-economic exclusion and institutional fragmentation, while environmental objectives remain weakly integrated with livability and climate adaptation. The paper proposes an adaptive framework that incorporates feedback loops, contextual adaptation and equity integration. It offers practical pathways for hybrid governance, iterative policy learning and equity-focused design to advance inclusive and sustainable smart city development, with special relevance to the Global South.