Disinformation as a Tool of Hybrid Warfare: Russian Information Aggression Against Ukraine (2022–2025)

The Role of the Media in a Democratic Society in the Context of an Existential Threat of a Military Nature

This article presents a comprehensive, systematic, and multidimensional theoretical and empirical analysis of the functioning of media institutions in a democratic society under the direct and prolonged influence of an existential military threat. The evolutionary trajectory of strategic communication models is examined through the example of Ukraine’s experience countering the full-scale invasion by the Russian Federation during 2014–2026. It has been established that this complex evolution is characterized by a fundamental transition from a reactive, defense-oriented model (primarily aimed at refuting disinformation) to a proactive strategy of deliberately constructing a national grand narrative, a vivid and effective example of which is the large-scale information campaign “Be Brave Like Ukraine”. The study highlights key trends in the exponential growth of the influence of unregulated digital platforms and messaging apps (primarily Telegram) in a context where cognitive influence plays a key role in the hybrid component of warfare. In addition, a thorough theoretical extrapolation and an in-depth comparison were conducted with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization’s (NATO) current doctrinal approaches to the organization of strategic communications and information operations (in accordance with the current basic standards AJP-10, AJP-10. 1 and AJP-10.3). Additionally, an expanded comparative analysis of the experience of managing the information environment during recent high-intensity armed conflicts in various geopolitical macro-regions was conducted. In particular, the State of Israel’s experience during the military operation “Iron Swords” was analyzed. Sociological tools were used to examine the relationship between the intensity of information flow consumption, the psychological state of the population, and the preservation of institutional trust in the government during periods of peak security tension. The study also examines the Republic of Turkey’s strategy during cross-border military operations, specifically the use of the geostrategic doctrine of the “Blue Homeland” as a conceptual framework for public diplomacy to articulate the state’s maritime interests and consolidate domestic consensus on security issues. The study’s findings reveal that mass communication institutions are among the fundamental and system-forming factors in global competition for cognitive dominance, facilitating the comprehensive mobilization of societal resources.

Fake news in wartime reporting: The case of the Israeli-American attack on Iran in 2026

Contemporary international conflicts are increasingly shifting from political-diplomatic arenas and conventional battlefields to informational spaces shaped by algorithms and propaganda aimed at securing the consent and support of the international community. By analyzing characteristic examples of fake news disseminated during media reporting on the conflict involving Israel, the United States, and Iran, this study examines the manipulative techniques most frequently employed in practice. The paper seeks to critically analyze their scope, speed, and persuasive capacity, bearing in mind that, by marginalizing truth, the media achieve short-term propagandistic effects with long-term consequences for the construction of a new security and political paradigm. The results of the analysis of characteristic narratives indicate a fundamental transformation in comparison with wars fought only a few decades ago – unlike the bombing of Iraq or the NATO aggression against Serbia, when television imagery served as the principal carrier of propagandistic meanings, the process of digitalization has transferred this role to social networks, digital platforms, and artificial intelligence.

FAKE NEWS IN WARTIME REPORTING – THE CASE OF THE ISRAELI-AMERICAN ATTACK ON IRAN IN 2026

REPRESENTATION OF INFORMATION WARFARE ON SOCIAL MEDIA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF FACEBOOK REGARDING THE RECENT TENSIONS BETWEEN AFGHANISTAN AND PAKISTAN

This study intends to analyze the representation of information warfare on Facebook in the context of the recent tensions between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Within the framework of developments in the digital age, social media platforms have the role for shaping public perception and narrative competition. Using a quantitative content analysis approach supported by interpretive analysis, the study examined 107 Facebook posts from three selected pages during a one‑month period at the peak of the tensions. Data were coded based on a designed codebook and analyzed through descriptive statistics and inferential tests. The findings show that the representation of tensions is predominantly framed through confrontational, security-oriented, and nationalist perspectives, while peace-oriented frames occupy only a minor share. Nationalism and enemy construction also play a major role in directing content, and the opposing side is frequently represented as an “enemy.” The results further demonstrate that information warfare operates in a complex and indirect manner, while emotional and visual elements significantly contribute to increasing user engagement. Overall, Facebook can be understood as an active arena within the field of information warfare.

Endangered democracies: A comparative study of the 2023 Nigerian presidential election and the rise of Nazism in 1930s Germany

Social media has transformed political communication, but its role in facilitating harmful discourse during elections remains underexplored. This study examines how X (formerly Twitter) contributed to the spread of misinformation, hate speech, and political propaganda during Nigeria’s 2023 presidential election. It investigates how election-related hashtags were strategically used to shape public opinion, reinforce political identities, and intensify social and political divisions. A qualitative research design was adopted. Publicly available posts associated with major election hashtags were collected through web scraping using the Selenium package in Python. The data were then analyzed using qualitative textual analysis to identify patterns of misinformation, hate speech, and manipulative political narratives. The findings show that hashtags served as powerful communication tools for amplifying false information, promoting inflammatory rhetoric, and legitimizing exclusionary political discourse. These communicative practices increased political polarization and created conditions that heightened the risk of electoral violence. The analysis also identifies similarities between contemporary digital propaganda and historical patterns of mass persuasion that have contributed to social conflict. This study advances communication scholarship by demonstrating how qualitative textual analysis can reveal early warning indicators of violence in online political discourse. The findings have practical implications for policymakers, electoral management bodies, communication professionals, social media platforms, and peacebuilding practitioners. They support the development of evidence-based strategies to counter misinformation, reduce hate speech, strengthen electoral integrity, and promote peaceful democratic participation in digitally connected societies.

Counter-Information Warfare and Policy Strategy of Digital Propaganda: A Review of Scientific Literature

This article presents a comprehensive literature review on counter-strategies against increasingly complex information warfare and digital propaganda in the era of algorithms and artificial intelligence. The information space has now transformed into a cognitive battlefield, where state and non-state actors utilize social media, automation, and generative technology to manipulate public perception, erode trust, and deepen social polarization. This study uses a qualitative approach with a systematic and thematic literature review method, which involves searching and selecting academic sources, policy reports, and institutional documents based on criteria of relevance, novelty, and credibility. Data were analyzed through thematic categorization and narrative synthesis to identify conceptual patterns, strategic dimensions, and research gaps. The results of the study show that there is no single effective approach to combating disinformation. Successful strategies require a multilayered integration, namely cross-sectoral synergy between the government, digital platforms, academics, the media, and civil society, combining technology-based interventions, media literacy education, psychological immunization, and evidence-based counter-narratives. Anti-disinformation policies and regulations must be designed ethically, with procedural safeguards, restrictions on access to personal data, and independent oversight mechanisms to prevent abuse. Continuous evaluation and adaptation are necessary to assess the effectiveness of strategies, detect adaptations by disinformation actors, and adjust responses in real time. Solutions for Countering Information Warfare and Digital Propaganda include: (1) implementing a multilayered approach to build cognitive resilience in society; (2) strengthening cross-sector collaboration; (3) formulating ethical governance and regulations; (4) continuous evaluation and adaptation of strategies; and (5) strengthening individual and collective capacity through media literacy and critical digital education.