Mother Tongue–Based Multilingual Education in Bangladesh: A Systematic Review of Implementation, Challenges, and Learning Outcomes

Tongue-Based Multilingual Education in Nepal: Prospects and Challenges

Tamang as a Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education in Nepal: Prospects and Challenges

Nepal is a multilingual country in which most of the languages of indigenous minority communities are on the brink of extinction. Against this backdrop, it attempted to explore the lived experiences of teachers, experts, and policy makers concerning the prospects of implementing Tamang as a mother tongue-based multilingual education (MT-MLE); to identify the challenges faced in enforcing Tamang as an MTB-MLE among Tamang-speaking learners and to explore the linguistic, cultural, social, and educational advantages of using Tamang as mother tongue-based in Tamang-dominated schools. A descriptive phenomenological research design was adopted for this study, using a sample of eight participants: four teachers, two experts, and two policymakers. The participants' lived reflections were gathered through in depth, semi-structured interviews. The data were analyzed and interpreted using content analysis. This study revealed a dearth of appropriate teaching and learning materials, a lack of financial support from Nepal's local, provincial, and federal governments, and challenges in implementing mother tongue-based multilingual education. In addition, the prospects of this study were the motivation of the learners through local teaching and learning materials, the reduction in dropout rates and increased learning, the promotion of cognitive maturity, and support for socialization and self-identity through the MT-MLE, which is inevitable for preserving the endangered indigenous languages in Nepal.

TEACHING ENGLISH IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN INDONESIA: WHAT’S MISSING AND HOW TO FIX IT

Early childhood education lays the foundation for lifelong learning by fostering essential competencies such as language acquisition, which is critical for cognitive, linguistic, and socio-emotional development. This study explores the constraints teachers face in implementing English language education in Early Childhood Education Institutions (ECE) across Indonesia and the support systems that can help bridge existing resource gaps. The research employs a qualitative case study design involving 17 institutions selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected through questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis, focusing on the challenges, teaching practices, and institutional support systems. The study revealed that teachers faced significant barriers, including limited resources, insufficient training, and lack of institutional support, which hindered effective English language instruction. However, positive influences from professional development opportunities, government policies, and collaborative efforts were identified as key factors in overcoming these challenges. The study recommends enhancing teacher training programs, improving resource allocation, and strengthening institutional policies to support English language education in early childhood settings in Indonesia.

FROM POLICY TO PRACTICE: EVALUATING THE MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION FOR EFFECTIVE AND SUSTAINABLE BASIC EDUCATION IN KOGI STATE

The medium of instruction remains one of the most critical determinants of learners' cognitive development, literacy acquisition, and educational achievement, particularly within multilingual societies. In Nigeria, the National Policy on Education prescribes the use of the child's mother tongue or the language of the immediate environment during the first three years of primary education before a gradual transition to English language. Despite this policy provision, implementation across states, including Kogi State, has remained inconsistent due to sociolinguistic diversity, inadequate teacher preparation, insufficient instructional resources, and parental preference for English-medium education. This paper evaluates the extent to which the prescribed language policy has been translated into classroom practice in Kogi State and examines its implications for effective and sustainable basic education. Drawing on policy documents, empirical studies, theoretical literature, and international best practices, the study adopts a qualitative review methodology anchored on language planning and sociocultural theories of learning. Findings indicate a significant disconnect between policy intentions and classroom realities, resulting in reduced learning outcomes, poor literacy development, and widening educational inequalities among learners from different linguistic backgrounds. The study further reveals that effective implementation of mother tongue-based multilingual education has the potential to improve foundational literacy, classroom participation, learner retention, and educational sustainability when supported by adequate teacher training, curriculum development, and community engagement. The paper concludes that strengthening policy implementation requires coordinated efforts among government agencies, educational institutions, teachers, communities, and development partners. It recommends enhanced investment in indigenous language materials, continuous professional development for teachers, improved monitoring mechanisms, and stronger stakeholder advocacy to ensure that language policy contributes meaningfully to quality basic education and sustainable national development in Kogi State and Nigeria at large.

Effects of Language Policy and Learners’ Sociolinguistic Background on Educational Achievement in a Multilingual City in the Philippines

In the Philippines, most children speak regional languages like Ilokano, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon as their first language (L1), but they have historically been schooled in English and Tagalog (i.e., Filipino). In 2012, the Department of Education (DepEd) institutionalized Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTBMLE), designating regional/local languages as the primary medium of instruction in the early grades. Despite this major policy shift, data on how it affected children of different linguistic and ethnic backgrounds remain scarce. This study addresses that gap by examining the effects of language-of-instruction (LOI) policy, child L1, and parental ethnicity on Grade 1 academic achievement in San Fernando, La Union—a multilingual city where Ilokano is the predominant language of the community and Ilocos Region. This quasi-experimental pre–post cohort comparison leverages an exogenous policy change to analyze data from 3002 Grade 1 students across 10 urban public schools in two consecutive school years: the last year of the old English–Filipino bilingual policy (SY 2011–2012) and the first year of MTBMLE (SY 2012–2013). Ordinary least squares and mixed-effects linear regression models estimate the effects of LOI policy, child L1, parental ethnicity, and their interactions on achievement scores. Under the old L2-oriented bilingual policy, L1 Ilokano children (the demographic majority) achieved significantly lower academic ratings than their L1 Tagalog peers, with an estimated gap of approximately 1.17–2.13 points (up to 0.5 standard deviations). Within one year of MTBMLE implementation, this gap decreased to just 0.10–0.18 points (less than 0.1 SD), driven primarily by an increase in Ilokano-speaking children’s achievement across all subjects. Parental ethnicity moderates these effects: children with at least one Ilokano parent showed greater achievement gains under MTBMLE than children with no Ilokano parents, but having one Ilokano parent was more advantageous than two. This suggests that multilingual home environments influence outcomes in complex ways. Overall, the findings provide empirical support for MTBMLE’s positive impact on educational outcomes and equity, observable even within the first year of implementation. They carry urgent implications as the Philippine government has suspended the policy under Republic Act 12027 of 2024. Policymakers are urged to disaggregate educational achievement data by children’s home languages, and incorporate L1s in instruction, assessment, and program evaluation.

Assessing Multiliteracies in English Language Teacher Education: The Perceived Levels of Multiliteracies and the Impact of Demographic Factors

The growing emphasis on 21st-century skills underscores the importance of multiliteracies for pre-service English language teachers in navigating diverse, digital, and multimodal classrooms. However, research on their perceived multiliteracies and associations with demographic factors remains limited. Thus, this study bridges this gap by determining how pre-service English language teachers perceived their multiliteracies using Teacher Multiliteracies Scale (TMS) encompassing four key dimensions: multimodal literacy (ML), digital literacy (DL), critical literacy (CL), socio-cultural literacy (SCL), and analyzing the variations based on demographic characteristics involving a total of 393 pre-service English language teachers. The result showed that the participants generally perceived themselves as moderately competent across all the dimensions, with DL dimension scoring the highest, followed by SCL, ML, and CL dimensions. Interestingly, no significant differences were found for gender, age, or academic level. Further regression analysis confirmed that teaching experience was modestly associated with ML, CL, and SCL dimensions, whereas DL showed no significant variations across the demographic variables among pre-service English language teachers. These findings suggest that teacher education programs may consider providing more authentic teaching experiences and practice-based learning opportunities to support multiliteracies development.