Biodegradation of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs): A Current State of Knowledge

Abstract

PPCPs have emerged as a significant class of environmental contaminants due to their extensive global consumption and persistence in natural ecosystems. Conventional wastewater treatment plants are often unable to completely remove these compounds, resulting in their continued release into aquatic and terrestrial environments. The bioaccumulation and long-term persistence of PPCPs raise serious concerns regarding potential ecological risks, disruption of microbial communities, and adverse impacts on human health through food chains and water reuse. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current advances in the biodegradation of PPCPs, with a particular focus on microbial degradation pathways. The roles of diverse microbial groups, including bacteria, fungi, and algae, as well as specific enzymatic systems, in the transformation and mineralization of PPCPs are critically examined. Special emphasis is placed on ligninolytic fungi, whose extracellular oxidative enzymes, such as laccases, peroxidases, and oxidoreductases, show high potential for degrading structurally complex PPCPs. Furthermore, the application of genetically engineered microorganisms is discussed as a promising strategy to enhance biodegradation efficiency by tailoring metabolic pathways. The review also evaluates environmental and physicochemical factors such as pH, temperature, redox potential, and the molecular properties of PPCPs that influence degradation outcomes. Beyond laboratory findings, advanced biotechnological innovations and decentralized on-site treatment technologies for soil and water systems are highlighted as practical approaches for sustainable remediation. By consolidating recent research findings, this work not only identifies existing challenges and knowledge gaps but also outlines future directions and integrated strategies toward effective, eco-friendly, and scalable PPCP mitigation.