Sensing to Intelligence: Principles for Neuromorphic Circuits and Systems

Abstract

Neuromorphic engineering began with the idea that the physical behavior of a system could itself be used for computation, taking inspiration from the way nervous systems sense, adapt, and evolve in time. The field has since expanded far beyond its early analog circuits to include event-based sensors, spiking processors, emerging memory devices, mixed-signal systems, and large-scale neural accelerators. With this expansion, however, the meaning of neuromorphic has become increasingly broad. In this Perspective, we argue that neuromorphic engineering should be defined neither by resemblance to biological components nor by any particular device, signal representation, or substrate. Its potential lies in identifying computational principles in biological systems and translating them into the organization and dynamics of artificial machines. A system is truly neuromorphic when the invoked biological or physical principle plays a causal, design-relevant role in how information is represented, how state evolves, or what capability the complete system achieves. We develop this view across sensing, collective computation, memory, learning, and interaction. Adaptation, nonlinear dynamics, attractor structure, variability, and closed-loop action illustrate how computation can be embedded in a machine's evolving physical state. From these examples, we identify a set of design principles for neuromorphic systems. As neuromorphic engineering moves toward wider deployment, this perspective shifts the central question from how closely machines resemble nervous systems to what computation becomes possible when their principles are understood and deliberately translated into new machines.