Towards Safe and Comfortable Vehicle Control Transitions: A Systematic Review of Takeover Time, Time Budget, and Takeover Outcomes

Abstract

Objective This review systematically investigates the determination of sufficient time budgets in conditionally automated driving, focusing on the interplay between takeover time, allocated time budgets, and outcomes. Background Conditionally automated driving requires human drivers to resume vehicle control within limited time budgets when system limits are reached. However, the significant variability in drivers’ takeover time (the time needed to regain control) poses challenges in balancing time budgets to avoid being too short (compromising safety and comfort) or too long (reducing driver alertness). Prior work lacks systematic exploration of sufficient time budgets across scenarios and drivers. Method Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 100 articles are selected for review. Review papers are analyzed to extract overarching insights on time budget design, while primary empirical studies are examined to complement and validate the findings. We systematically synthesize evidence along the takeover sequence, covering (i) drivers’ required takeover time, (ii) the time budgets provided by automated driving systems, and (iii) the resulting takeover outcomes. Based on the synthesis, we further discuss how the reviewed evidence informs the design of adaptive time budgets. Results This review synthesizes evidence on the takeover sequence and shows that takeover time varies significantly across drivers and driving contexts. Fixed time budgets cannot accommodate such variability. Adaptive time budgets that adjust to driver takeover demands are therefore promising. We propose an adaptive framework in which the time budget is defined as the sum of a predicted takeover time and an additional takeover buffer. To support this framework, the review identifies a qualitative inverted-U relationship among takeover time, time budget, and takeover outcomes: outcomes improve when the time budget exceeds the predicted takeover time, but deteriorate when the budget becomes unnecessarily long. Conclusion Structuring the takeover sequence clarifies trade-offs in time budget design. Adaptive approaches that estimate takeover time and allocate an appropriate takeover buffer to achieve targeted outcomes show promise yet warrant further investigation. Application Insights can optimize human-vehicle interactions for safe and comfortable takeovers, thus promoting public trust and acceptance of conditionally automated driving.