Aug 2026· Biomimetics· Vol 11, pp. 537· 0 citations· 74 references
Medicine
TL;DR
Overall, HAp/PLGA/CS scaffolds showed potential as experimental bioactive platforms for bone tissue engineering, with 3D-printed scaffolds providing greater architectural control and favorable early osteogenic responses, although the translational relevance of these findings remains preliminary.
Abstract
Tooth loss and bone resorption of the alveolar cavity caused by dental caries and periodontal disease remain major clinical challenges that compromise oral function. Tissue engineering approaches based on biocompatible scaffolds have emerged as promising strategies for bone regeneration; however, the influence of fabrication methods on scaffold performance remains unclear. This study developed hydroxyapatite/poly (lactic-coglycolic acid)/chitosan scaffolds (HAp/PLGA/CS) using freeze-drying and 3D-printing techniques and evaluated their physicochemical, biological, and biomechanical properties. The morphology, porosity, elemental composition, and mechanical properties of the scaffold were characterized, while the biocompatibility and osteogenic potential were evaluated using human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs). Finite element analysis (FEA) using COMSOL Multiphysics® Version 6.2. was performed to evaluate scaffold behavior under simulated dental implant loading conditions. The 3D-printed scaffolds exhibited significantly higher cell viability than the freeze-dried scaffolds, reaching approximately 85% in the 50% filling group compared with 50% in the freeze-dried group. Microstructural analysis revealed interconnected hierarchical porosity, including macro-, micro-, and submicrometer scale pores. Although the 50% infill scaffold showed the highest cell viability, the 70% infill scaffold demonstrated the most favorable osteogenic profile, with enhanced expression of RUNX2 and OSX. Both types exhibited degradation profiles compatible with early bone regeneration. FEA simulations indicated that further mechanical optimization is required to improve load transfer and reduce deformation at the implant–scaffold interface. Overall, HAp/PLGA/CS scaffolds showed potential as experimental bioactive platforms for bone tissue engineering, with 3D-printed scaffolds providing greater architectural control and favorable early osteogenic responses. However, the translational relevance of these findings remains preliminary and requires validation through long-term degradation studies, in vivo bone regeneration and osseointegration models, cyclic mechanical testing, and implant fixation experiments.
Autologous and allogeneic bone grafts are primarily used for bone tissue defects; however, they have limitations such as limited supply, donor site morbidity, and immune rejection risks. Therefore, substitute synthetic bone grafts are required.
Using low-temperature 3D printing combined with freeze-drying technology, a hierarchically porous PLGA/HA@SeNPs composite scaffold was fabricated by compositing poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) with hyaluronic acid-modified selenium nanoparticles (HA@SeNPs), enabling sustained immunomodulation and osteogenic activity through its engineered microtopography and bioactive components.
In vitro evaluations confirmed that the unique microstructure and sustained selenium release from HA@SeNPs synergistically promoted macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype, accompanied by enhanced osteogenic differentiation as shown by upregulation of Runx2 and OCN and accelerated matrix mineralization. Implantation into a rat femoral critical-sized defect model resulted in substantially improved bone repair and architectural restoration.
These findings indicate that the intrinsic physicochemical properties of the PLGA/HA@SeNPs scaffold orchestrate a favorable osteo-immune environment, positioning it as a promising platform for bone regeneration.
Shengwen Cheng, Yuqiao Wang, Yu Zhai et al.· Burns & Trauma· 0 citations
Overall, PTB4 achieved the best balance among printability, mechanical compatibility, cytocompatibility, angiogenesis-related activity, and osteogenic performance, supporting low-dose BT modification as a promising strategy for safe, printable scaffolds for critical-size craniofacial and oral bone defect repair.
This study aims to develop hydroxyapatite (HA)-based bioceramic scaffolds reinforced with 3 mol% yttria-stabilized zirconia (3Y-ZrO2) using digital light processing (DLP) additive manufacturing, and to evaluate their mechanical strength, cytocompatibility and antibacterial performance for potential load-bearing bone repair.
HA/3Y-ZrO2 scaffolds were fabricated via DLP 3D printing and sintered at optimized temperatures. Phase composition and microstructure were analyzed by XRD and scanning electron microscopy. Mechanical properties were assessed through compressive, flexural and fracture toughness tests. In vitro cytocompatibility was evaluated using osteoblast viability assays, while antibacterial functionality was imparted by chitosan coating and tested against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
The DLP process enabled scaffolds with interconnected pores (>500 µm), porosity above 90% and high dimensional accuracy. The optimized HZ-3 scaffold achieved compressive strength of 285.36 MPa, flexural strength of 26.02 MPa and fracture toughness of 1.18 MPa·m½, with a relative density of 93.9% after sintering at 1250 °C. In vitro assays confirmed excellent cytocompatibility (up to 98.67% cell viability after 14 days). Chitosan-functionalized surfaces reduced bacterial adhesion by 99.1% (S. aureus) and 90.7% (E. coli).
This work demonstrates a multifunctional HA/3Y-ZrO2 scaffold fabricated by DLP that combines high mechanical strength, biocompatibility and antibacterial activity. The integration of zirconia reinforcement with chitosan coating may provide a promising strategy for developing advanced bioceramic scaffolds with improved mechanical and antibacterial functionality for bone repair applications.
The scaffold showed the highest osteoinduction, and the scaffold with 530 ± 56 μm average pore diameter demonstrated the highest expression of osteodifferentiation marker genes in DPSCs, and the addition of nanoparticles into the polymer matrix led to the decrease in the expression of pro-inflammatory genes in macrophages.
A. V. Yushkov, E. A. Kuvshinova, I. Bulygina et al.· Biomedical Materials· 0 citations
Heterotopic ossification (HO) is a clinically challenging complication after trauma or orthopedic surgery. This study evaluated a hybrid biodegradable scaffold for localized peri-osseous delivery of agents relevant to HO-risk and bone-healing environments. Polycaprolactone (PCL) mesh scaffolds were fabricated using solvent-cast additive manufacturing as flexible macro-scale barriers, while poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanofibers incorporating indomethacin, teicoplanin, and bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) were prepared using electrospinning and coaxial electrospinning. Scaffold morphology, wettability, mechanical behavior, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry profiles, in vitro release, rabbit local/systemic release, and peri-implant histology were evaluated. The PCL mesh showed an ultimate tensile strength of 26.2 ± 2.6 MPa and a maximum strain of 337%. After 3 days in phosphate-buffered saline, the assembled PCL mesh/PLGA nanofiber scaffold retained comparable tensile properties, with an ultimate tensile strength of 24.8 ± 2.0 MPa and maximum strain of 334 ± 6%, indicating preserved flexibility under hydrated conditions. Drug-loaded PLGA nanofibers showed reduced tensile strength compared with pristine PLGA fibers, indicating that drug incorporation affected nanofiber handling and durability. In vitro testing demonstrated initial burst release of indomethacin and teicoplanin followed by sustained release, whereas BMP-2 release persisted for more than 30 days. In healthy rabbits, local teicoplanin and indomethacin levels were sustained for 28 days with substantially lower systemic levels. Histology demonstrated an early peri-implant inflammatory response that decreased over time. As no validated HO model or ectopic bone quantification was used, the findings support scaffold feasibility and localized delivery, not proven HO prevention. Further disease-model efficacy, biological activity, dose optimization, degradation, and safety studies are required before clinical translation.
Chih-Yang Lai, Po-Ju Lai, Szu-Yao Wang et al.· Materials Science in Additiv...· 0 citations
Material selection is crucial to hard tissue regeneration, and matching scaffold properties to those of the target tissue can improve clinical outcomes. This study compared the physicochemical, mechanical, and biological performance of fibrous scaffolds fabricated from polycaprolactone (PCL), polydioxanone (PDO), and gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) for hard tissue regeneration. Polymeric fibers were produced by electrospinning, and their morphological, physical, and mechanical properties were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, n = 2), swelling and degradation analyses (n = 8), water contact angle measurements (n = 16), and tensile testing (n = 8). In addition, periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs), alveolar bone marrow stem cells (aBMSCs), and dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) were seeded onto the scaffolds to evaluate cell spreading (n = 4), viability (n = 8), and mineralized matrix formation (n = 6). Data were analyzed using one- or two-way ANOVA followed by appropriate post hoc tests (α = 5%). All polymers formed homogeneous fibrous scaffolds, with diameters within the nanoscale range. PDO and GelMA showed higher swelling than PCL, while PCL retained approximately 95% of its initial mass after three months. PCL and PDO showed higher elongation at break, tensile strength, and Young’s modulus than GelMA. Both PDO and GelMA displayed contact angles below 90°, with GelMA showing the lowest values. In vitro, all polymers were cytocompatible: PDO and GelMA enhanced DPSC viability at 7 days, whereas GelMA produced the highest viability for PDLSCs and aBMSCs at that time point. GelMA also promoted the highest mineralized matrix formation for DPSCs and PDLSCs, with no significant differences among polymers for aBMSCs. Overall, GelMA scaffolds promoted greater cell viability and mineralized matrix formation, while PCL and PDO provided superior mechanical properties, highlighting the importance of balancing biological and mechanical requirements when designing scaffolds for hard tissue regeneration.
C. Anselmi, Sepideh Aminmansour, I. P. Mendes Soares et al.· Biomimetics· 0 citations
