Dark Factory vs. Humanoid Factory: Two Development Directions of Industrial Automation in Comparison

Abstract

Industrial automation is currently shaped by two complementary development paths: the highly standardised, fully autonomous Dark Factory and the Humanoid Factory, in which humanoid robots serve as flexible automation components within existing production environments. While both concepts pursue unmanned manufacturing, they differ fundamentally in flexibility, infrastructure compatibility, and technological maturity. Dark‑factory approaches are already established in several industries, whereas no productive systems relying entirely on humanoid robotics exist to date. This study compares both paradigms through a systematic literature review and a conceptual classification within the context of industrial production systems. The findings show that humanoid robots can address automation challenges in areas previously considered difficult to automate, positioning them as a complementary technology rather than a competing one. At the same time, significant research and development needs emerge at the intersection of autonomy, adaptability, and safety. The analysis concludes that a fully Humanoid Factory is not feasible in the short to medium term due to technological immaturity and the absence of harmonised safety and certification frameworks. However, evidence suggests that hybrid production models are beginning to emerge, in which humanoid robots are gradually integrated into dark‑factory environments to enhance adaptability, resilience, and variant‑rich production capabilities.