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Open access Aug 2026

Children’s Differential Susceptibility to Peer Acceptance and Rejection: A Multi-informant Longitudinal Study

In this multi-informant longitudinal study, we examined whether children with higher levels of self-reported sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) showed stronger longitudinal associations between peer relationships (i.e., peer acceptance and rejection) and their social-emotional functioning (i.e., prosocial behavior, aggressive behavior, and emotional symptoms). Participants were 567 third- and fourth-grade children ( M age = 9.16 at Wave 1; 58.8% boys; 98.9% Han Chinese), followed across three waves, spaced one year apart. Peer acceptance and rejection were measured using classmate nominations at Waves 1 to 3, SPS through children’s self-reports at Wave 3, prosocial and aggressive behaviors through both mother reports and classmate nominations at Waves 1 to 3, and emotional symptoms through mother reports at Waves 1 to 3. Results revealed only one significant SPS moderation effect among the many tested, providing little evidence for SPS-based differential susceptibility in this context. We discuss explanations, including study-level constraints and broader theoretical questions, such as whether person-centered approaches may better capture distinct susceptibility subtypes that may emerge by late childhood.

Danni Liu, A. van Dijk, M. Dekovíc et al. · 0 citations
Review Aug 2026

Self-regulation during a modified still-face paradigm with a mobile device as a predictor of early internalizing and externalizing problems.

Examining how toddlers' emerging self-regulatory capabilities relate to later behavioral outcomes is important for understanding internalizing and externalizing problems during early childhood. Child self-regulation may serve as a promotive factor, with children demonstrating stronger self-regulation showing resilience against adverse environmental influences. In the current study, we examined the longitudinal relations between toddler temperament, self-regulation, and maternal internalizing symptoms assessed at 18 months, and toddler internalizing and externalizing problems at 24 months. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study on attention and temperament (name masked for review; 24-month follow-up sample: n = 52; 55.8% girls and 44.2% boys; complete-case analytic sample: n = 44). Toddler self-regulation was assessed using a modified Still-Face Paradigm designed to reflect technoference, capturing regulatory behaviors in the context of modern digital parenting. We found that specific temperamental dimensions differentially predicted internalizing and externalizing problems, while maternal internalizing symptoms and toddler behavioral regulation were associated with both internalizing and externalizing problems at 24 months of age. Importantly, toddler self-comforting behaviors during the modified still-face task remained a significant negative predictor of internalizing and externalizing problems at 24 months, even after accounting for maternal internalizing symptoms. Our findings support the role of toddler behavioral regulation as a potential protective factor against emotional and behavioral difficulties in early childhood above and beyond the contribution of maternal mental health.

Eunkyung Shin, Sarah Myruski, Tracy A. Dennis-Tiwary et al. · 0 citations
Open access Jul 2026

Exploring Longitudinal Associations Among Error-Related Negativity, Perception of Interpersonal Events, and Internalizing Symptoms in Female Adolescents

Heightened error-related negativity (ERN), a neural marker of error sensitivity and trait defensive reactivity, and maladaptive appraisals of interpersonal events have each been linked to adolescent internalizing symptoms. Few studies have evaluated a developmental mechanistic model to test whether enhanced ERN might prospectively predict more negative perceptions of peer and family events, and if through this pathway, internalizing symptoms increase. The present study tested this hypothesis in a sample of 79 female adolescents (ages 11–16 years old), of whom 36 adolescents had mothers with histories of internalizing disorders. At baseline, the participants’ ERN was measured through electroencephalogram recordings while completing a computerized flanker task. At baseline and 6-month follow-up, participants completed self-report measures of adolescent perceptions of family and peer events and internalizing symptoms. Analyses were conducted within a structural equation modeling framework to capitalize on the full dataset. Three competing models (correlated outcomes, negative perceptions of interpersonal events mediation, reverse internalizing symptoms mediation) were tested and relative model fit comparisons were made to determine which model fit the data better. We found partial support for our hypotheses. For the family events models, there was stronger evidence that baseline ERN predicted increases in internalizing symptoms via increases in negative perceptions of family events. However, for the peer events models, there was stronger evidence that internalizing symptoms mediated the prospective associations between baseline ERN and increases in negative perceptions of peer events. Future research should consider reciprocal effects among these pathways and how these processes could be targeted by preventive interventions.

Rebecca A. Mueller, Katie L Burkhouse, Jennifer H. Suor · 0 citations
Open access Jul 2026

Positive parenting and its impact on positive development of adolescents and emerging adults across academic trajectories

The literature shows that parenting style is the main factor for the positive development of children at all stages of development. Positive development has been evaluated using various psychological constructs. This study analyzes this relationship using four constructs with a strong adaptive component: dispositional optimism, hope, general self-efficacy and sense of coherence. Additionally, we adopt an ecological perspective and examine whether these associations differ across cross-sectional age groups, sex, and academic pathways. To this end, a sample of 1507 adolescents and emerging adults from different academic pathways, between 12 and 18 years old and 52% female, completed the following questionnaires: the Youth Life Orientation Test (YLOT), Children’s Hope Scale (CHS), General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSS), Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC-13) questionnaires and a scale for evaluating parenting style (Scale for the Evaluation of Parenting Style in Adolescents). A random sampling was carried out by schools in a Spanish province. Previous reliability and validity analyses of the constructs were carried out and correlational analyses and structural predictions were made. The results show that the constructs define a unique factor of positive development and that positive parenting is associated with better positive development. However, the relevance of these relationships are lower as the age group is higher, except in the group of young people with less successful academic pathways. The relation between positive parenting and positive development are different depending on sex, adolescent stage and academic pathway. Families that provide positive support may calibrate their involvement to the needs typically associated with different age groups. Implications for family and academic arenas are discussed.

Álvaro Balaguer, S. Orejudo, Elkin O. Luis · 0 citations
Open access Aug 2026

Adolescent-Parent Agreement on Internalizing, Externalizing and Prosocial Behaviors: Do Age and Gender Matter?

This study investigated the extent of adolescent-parent agreement concerning adolescents’ internalizing, externalizing and prosocial behaviors. Adolescents’ age and gender were examined as explanatory factors. The sample comprised 5,224 participants, involving both self-assessments by adolescents ( n female = 2,726, n male = 2,498, M age = 14.29, Min age = 11.00, Max age = 17.92, SD age = 1.98) and parent reports. We used a multitrait-multimethod model in a confirmatory factor analysis framework to assess the extent of agreement between self-reports and parent reports. Additionally, we used a multiple-indicator correlated trait-correlated method minus one model to explore consistency and specificity. Furthermore, we applied a multiple-indicator, multiple-causes model to examine the predictive effects of age and gender. The findings revealed a moderate level of agreement between adolescents and parents concerning both internalizing and externalizing behaviors, while agreement was slightly lower for prosocial behaviors. Regarding explanatory factors, the results indicated that participants in middle adolescence rated their internalizing behaviors higher compared to those in early adolescence, whereas parents demonstrated an opposite effect. Gender effects were observed for internalizing and prosocial behaviors, with female adolescents self-rating higher than male adolescents. These findings underscore the relevance of using multi-informant assessments of social-emotional experiences and behaviors during childhood and adolescence. Such assessments are important for the development and implementation of preventive and intervention-based systems that aim to support positive health, social, and educational outcomes for adolescents and their parents or caregivers.

Philipp Schmidt, Carmen L. A. Zurbriggen · 0 citations
Open access Aug 2026

Collective Efficacy: A Resilience Factor to Adverse Childhood Experiences and Externalizing Behaviors

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) affect a third of all children in the United States. However, less is understood about how specific aspects of ACEs, such as household dysfunction, influence the behavioral development of children as they enter adolescence and whether collective efficacy can buffer this relationship. This study used longitudinal data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study (n = 11,868, baseline Mage = 9.9, SDage = 0.6, 52% male; 52% White, 20% Hispanic, 15% Black, 2% Asian, and 11% Other race/ethnicity). Multiple regression analyses suggested that baseline household dysfunction positively predicted externalizing behaviors two and three years later, and that these associations were attenuated by high levels of collective efficacy at the two-year follow-up. These findings suggest the joint roles of household- and neighborhood-level contexts in shaping adolescent behavioral health and indicate that collective efficacy can serve as a promotive and protective resilience factor in the trajectory of externalizing behaviors.

Ashlee J. Saxon, Edna C. Alfaro, Eunjin Seo et al. · 0 citations