The independent protective role of paternal involvement in the association between maternal containment and depressive symptoms in children aged 3-6

Paternal versus maternal depressive symptoms and child internalizing/externalizing problems: a comparative threshold analysis.

BACKGROUND Parental depression is a well-established risk factor for child psychopathology, yet most studies focus on mothers. Whether nonlinear patterns with thresholds exist, especially for fathers, remains unclear. This study examines these associations and identified optimal thresholds comparing mothers and fathers. METHODS This cross-sectional study included 21,366 parents (16,258 mothers and 5108 fathers) of children aged 3-6 years in western China. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD). Child internalizing and externalizing problems were measured with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Piecewise logistic regression with grid search identified thresholds, adjusting for demographic and socioeconomic covariates. RESULTS Higher CES-D scores were associated with increased odds of child problems (all P < 0.001). The gender by CES-D interaction was significant for externalizing problems (P = 0.019), indicating a stronger association in fathers. For internalizing problems, the optimal threshold was a CES-D score of 17 for both mothers and fathers. For externalizing problems, the threshold was lower in fathers (16) than in mothers (21). Below these thresholds, each one-point increase in CES-D score was associated with 10-16% higher odds of child problems. Above the thresholds, the associations were attenuated. Piecewise models fitted significantly better than linear models (all P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Fathers' depressive symptoms were associated with child externalizing problems at a lower severity level compared with mothers, suggesting that screening for paternal depression even at subclinical levels may help identify families at elevated risk. The identified thresholds may help generate hypotheses for future longitudinal and clinical validation studies.

Reciprocal associations between parent-child relationships and adolescent depressive symptoms: The longitudinal mediation role of insomnia and sex differences.

Bidirectional associations between maternal depressive symptomatology and parenting: moderating effects of breastfeeding and partner support

Postpartum depression and parenting both play a role in shaping children’s future behavior. However, there is limited understanding of the interaction and the evolving relationship between depressive symptoms and parenting practices. This study aimed to investigate the bidirectional associations between maternal depressive symptomatology and parenting (maternal self-efficacy, maternal warmth, and maternal hostile-reactive behaviors) in the postpartum period and to assess the moderating effect of breastfeeding and partner support on these associations. Latent growth curve and multigroup analyses were estimated in a sample of 1551 mothers of the 3D pregnancy cohort. Maternal depressive symptomatology and parenting practices were concurrently associated. Bidirectional associations were found between maternal depressive symptomatology and maternal self-efficacy, but not for warmth or hostile-reactive behaviors. Mothers with high perceived partner support showed a significant association between increased maternal warmth and lower depressive symptoms at 24 months. In contrast, mothers with lower perceived partner support demonstrated stronger associations between early hostile-reactive parenting and later depressive symptoms, as well as a greater impact of declining self-efficacy on maternal depressive symptoms. Breastfeeding showed limited moderating effects, with no significant buffering impact on the associations between depressive symptoms and parenting practices. These findings highlight the protective role of partner support in mitigating the adverse effects of depressive symptoms on parenting and vice versa, emphasizing the need for interventions that strengthen maternal self-efficacy and partner involvement to promote maternal mental health.

Mediational Role of Executive Functions on Parental Style and Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in Adolescents From Different Vulnerability Environments: A Cross‐Sectional Study

Executive functions (EFs) and parental styles are key determinants of adolescent mental health. This study investigates the mediating role of EFs in the relationship between parenting styles (communicative, hostile, and neglectful) and anxiety and depression symptoms in a sample of 165 adolescents (50.9% boys and 49.1% girls) from 12 to 16 years old (mean age 13.29) from schools with varying socioeconomic vulnerability levels. Participants completed the Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function 2 and the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale. The results show that adolescents in high‐vulnerability schools exhibit significantly higher anxiety and depression symptoms and perceive lower parental communication from both mothers and fathers compared to those in low‐vulnerability schools. No significant differences were observed in EFs difficulties based on school vulnerability. Regression analyses indicate that parental communication predicts lower levels of anxiety and depression symptoms, whereas paternal neglect emerges as a specific risk predictor. Mediation models reveal that EFs deficits, specifically in cognitive flexibility and working memory, serve as the primary mechanism linking parenting styles to emotional adjustment. These findings underscore the importance of parental communication as a secure environment that may foster not only cognitive development but also mentalization (or reflective functioning). We conclude that school‐based interventions should prioritize EFs training as an equity‐based tool to protect the well‐being of adolescents in high‐vulnerability settings.

Developmental Pathways Linking Maternal Depressive Symptoms with Parenting Quality and Preschool Children’s Screen Time: The Role of Children’s Behavioural Problems

Background: Maternal depressive symptoms have been associated with adverse child and family outcomes, including child behavioural problems, suboptimal parenting quality, and increased child screen time. However, the developmental pathways linking these factors remain poorly understood. The first model of this study examined whether children’s behavioural problems mediated associations between maternal depressive symptoms and later parenting quality (i.e., nurturant, hostile, consistent). The second model then investigated whether these pathways extended to preschool children’s screen time during the pre-bedtime period. Methods: Longitudinal data from the APrON Study (N = 373 dyads) were analyzed. A mean score for maternal depressive symptoms (EPDS) was derived using data collected across pregnancy and 3, 6, and 12 months postpartum. At age 3 years, child behaviour was assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist. At 5 years, parenting quality was measured using the Parenting Scale, and children’s screen time (frequency of use before bedtime) was assessed using a single maternal-reported item developed by the APrON team. Parallel and parallel serial mediation models were estimated using structural equation modeling. Findings: Maternal depressive symptoms were indirectly associated with more hostile parenting through children’s externalizing problems (p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.02, 0.11]) and directly associated with less nurturant parenting (p = 0.02, 95% CI [−0.19, −0.02]). Results from the parallel serial mediation model indicated that maternal depressive symptoms were indirectly associated with greater child screen time via children’s externalizing problems (p = 0.02, 95% CI [0.01, 0.06]). Significance: These findings suggest that children’s externalizing problems may represent a plausible pathway linking maternal depressive symptoms with later maternal hostile parenting and preschool children’s screen time.

The Impact of Parenting on Young Adult Mental Health Outcomes in Northern Ireland: The Role of Sex, Personality and Family Structure

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of mother’s and father’s joint parenting on young adult mental health outcomes, and to explore the impact of sex, personality and family structure in observed relationships. Two hundred and forty-five Northern Irish university students (mean age 21.11 years, SD 2.70, 66% female, 94% white) completed the Measure of Parental Style (MOPS) to measure perception of maternal and paternal indifference, overcontrol and abuse. Mental health was assessed using measures of alcohol misuse, depression and anxiety. Moderators included personality, sex and family structure. Cluster analysis revealed three parenting clusters indicative of positive parenting, negative fathering, and negative mothering. Negative parenting by either parent was associated with higher depression, regardless of sex or family structure. We found some evidence of a buffering effect of negative fathering in the context of good enough parenting from the mother, in that negative parenting from the mother, and not the father, was associated with anxiety symptoms and with earlier drinking in females. The impact of negative parenting by either parent was particularly pronounced in young people who displayed high levels of punishment sensitivity. These results highlight the importance of both parents in the preservation of mental health through to adulthood, regardless of whether they remain together. They also argue for family-focused care in the management of youth mental health.