From Access to Capabilities: A Cluster Analysis of the Digital Divide across European Union Economies

Abstract

This study examines changes in the multidimensional profile of digital transformation across 22 European Union member states that are also OECD members, comparing two benchmark years 2017 and 2023. The proposed framework extends beyond digital access to include ICT human capital, innovation capacity, cybersecurity preparedness, and digital economic outcomes. Using data from Eurostat, the OECD, and the World Bank, the study applies k-means clustering, Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM), Principal Component Analysis, hierarchical clustering, and the Adjusted Rand Index to classify countries and assess changes over time.Two clusters, catching-up and advanced, were identified in both years, although their composition changed. The catching-up cluster increased from 12 to 14 economies in 2023, with Estonia moving to the advanced cluster and Austria, Belgium, and France moving in the opposite direction. These transitions reflect relative repositioning rather than digital deterioration, as the advanced profile became increasingly associated with ICT skills, secure digital infrastructure, digital-service exports, and economic capacity. While connectivity gaps narrowed, disparities in skills, innovation, cybersecurity, and competitiveness persisted, suggesting partial convergence in digital access but continued divergence in digital capabilities.Copyright© 2026 The Author(s). This article is distributed under the terms of the license CC-BY 4.0., which permits any further distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.Article’s History: Received 15th of June, 2026; Revised 30th of July, 2026; Accepted 19th of August, 2026; Available online: 30th of September, 2026. Published as article in the Volume XXI, Fall, Issue 4(94), 2026.