Gendered Uses and Meanings of Taboo Language: A Systematic Review of Sociolinguistic, Digital, Cultural, and Cognitive Research

Abstract

Taboo language is a complex form of communication that extends beyond simple expressions of offence or aggression, as its use and meaning may vary according to gender, social context, culture, identity, power, digital environments, and cognitive processes. However, existing research on gendered taboo and offensive language remains dispersed across sociolinguistic, digital, cultural, and cognitive perspectives, making it difficult to obtain an integrated understanding of how gender shapes its forms, functions, and meanings. This systematic literature review (SLR) aims to synthesise existing research on the gendered uses and meanings of taboo language and identify major patterns across different research contexts. The review employed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol and systematically searched two major databases, Web of Science and Scopus, using the keywords “taboo language,” “offensive language,” “gender,” and “swearing.” The initial search and screening process identified 84 relevant studies, of which 43 proceeded to the eligibility stage, and 41 studies were retained for the final thematic analysis. The findings revealed seven major themes: sociolinguistic patterns and gendered variation in swearing and taboo language (9 studies; 21.95%), taboo and offensive language as identity, power, resistance, and gender performance (8; 19.51%), online hate speech and gendered digital communication (4; 9.76%), censorship, euphemism, avoidance, translation, and gender-fair language reform (8; 19.51%), cognitive and emotional processing of taboo language (7; 17.07%), gendered discourse and representation beyond swearing (3; 7.32%), and contextual and peripheral uses of offensive or forbidden terminology (2; 4.88%). Overall, the review demonstrates that gendered taboo language is multidimensional and context-dependent, functioning not only as offensive speech but also as a resource for identity construction, solidarity, resistance, humour, power negotiation, and social representation. The findings highlight the need for future research to examine gendered taboo language through more integrated sociolinguistic, digital, cultural, and cognitive perspectives.