From soil remediation to resource recovery: a circular phytoremediation framework for sustainable restoration
Abstract
Increasing soil degradation and resource scarcity threaten food security, ecosystem resilience, and climate mitigation, creating an urgent need for sustainable soil restoration strategies. This review is based on the hypothesis that integrating phytoremediation, plant–microbe interactions, and biomass valorisation within a circular bioeconomy framework can transform contaminated soil remediation from a linear pollutant removal process into a regenerative resource recovery system. Current advances in phytoremediation, microbial-assisted remediation, and biomass utilisation are critically synthesised to evaluate their roles in restoring contaminated soils while generating renewable energy, bio-based materials, biofertilisers, and recovered metals. Unlike previous reviews that primarily examine remediation efficiency or individual biological processes, this review establishes an interdisciplinary framework linking soil science, microbial ecology, environmental biotechnology, biomass valorisation, and circular bioeconomy principles, demonstrating how remediation can simultaneously improve soil health, enhance biodiversity, promote carbon sequestration, recover valuable resources, and strengthen techno-economic sustainability. Emerging opportunities in bioenergy production, phytomining, nutrient recovery, and bio-based products highlight new business pathways for circular biorefineries and sustainable resource recovery from contaminated land. Future research priorities include optimisation of plant–microbe–algae consortia, artificial intelligence-assisted decision support, nano-enabled remediation technologies, long-term field validation, harmonised life-cycle and techno-economic assessments, and supportive regulatory frameworks for large-scale implementation. By repositioning phytoremediation as a circular resource recovery platform rather than solely a remediation technology, this review provides a systems-level framework for sustainable land management that can accelerate industrial adoption of circular biomass utilisation, improve resource efficiency, and contribute to SDGs 2 (Zero Hunger), 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), 13 (Climate Action), and 15 (Life on Land). Not applicable. Phytoremediation is redefined as a circular resource recovery strategy. Plant–microbe synergy enhances soil restoration efficiency. Biomass valorisation creates energy, materials, and nutrient resources. Integrated remediation strengthens circular bioeconomy pathways. Future biotechnologies support climate-smart soil restoration.