3D printing technologies in implantable medical devices: principles, applications, and cost-effectiveness in cardiovascular surgery

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing technologies, also known as additive manufacturing, have revolutionized biomedical engineering and surgical applications by enabling the high-accuracy and patient-specific production of complex geometries. Over the past decade, these technologies have moved beyond mere prototype manufacturing into routine clinical and industrial use. This review summarizes the fundamental operating principles, clinical applicability, advantages, and limitations of major 3D printing technologies, including SLA, FDM, selective laser sintering, selective laser melting, and binder jetting. Furthermore, their applications in cardiovascular and cardiac surgery, cost-effectiveness analyses, and future trends are discussed.