Plastic Waste Pollution: Environmental, Human Health, Technological and Governance Dimensions of Control

Abstract

Global plastic pollution is a complex, transboundary lifecycle crisis extending beyond inadequate waste management. This review synthesizes empirical evidence from 2022–2026 on the sources, transport pathways, and ecotoxicological fate of macro-, micro-, and nanoplastics across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments. Increasing plastic production, particularly from plasticulture and single-use packaging, drives persistent environmental inputs. Weathering and mechanical abrasions generate micro- and nanoplastics with altered physicochemical properties and enhanced reactivity. In terrestrial ecosystems, these particles can modify soil structure, microbial communities, and nutrient cycling, while in aquatic systems, the plastisphere influences pollutant bioavailability and trophic transfer. Experimental studies demonstrate mechanisms including oxidative stress and inflammation, although human epidemiological evidence remains insufficient to establish causality. Recycling technologies face contamination, energy, and scalability constraints. Therefore, effective mitigation requires more than technological solutions, emphasizing internationally coordinated prevention, production reduction, extended producer responsibility, informal-sector integration, and standardized analytical protocols.