Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health of parents with young children up to three years post-pandemic: a dynamic, population-based cohort study

Abstract

Parents of young children experienced significant mental health challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic, suggesting accumulation of pandemic-related stressors over time. This raises concerns about potential post-pandemic effects, specifically among those facing additional hardships. This study examines the impact of the pandemic on parental mental health up to three years post-pandemic and identifies predictors of mental health during the pandemic. Data collected between October 2019 and January 2025 from the dynamic population-based Sarphati Cohort were used, including 4,319 parents whose initial measurement occurred prior to or during the pandemic. Measurements were restricted to when children were aged 0–3 years. Repeated measurements of psychological distress ( n  = 6,595 observations), loneliness ( n  = 6,595), and parenting stress ( n  = 9,830) were analysed across eleven time periods (pre-, during, and post-pandemic) using linear mixed models. Change in emotional well-being due to the pandemic ( n  = 9,228) was analysed descriptively across pandemic periods. Sociodemographic, family, household, and pandemic-specific factors were tested as mental health predictors during the pandemic. Psychological distress significantly increased during the pandemic (second lockdown: estimated marginal means (EMM) = 4.83, 95% CI [4.52; 5.13] versus pre-pandemic EMM = 4.41, [4.12; 4.71]), declined post-pandemic (2022), but significantly increased again from 2023 onwards (2024/2025: EMM = 5.11, [4.72; 5.49]). Loneliness significantly increased in the second lockdown (EMM = 1.78, [1.66; 1.91] versus pre-pandemic EMM = 1.40, [1.28; 1.53]) and remained elevated up to 2024/2025 (EMM = 1.64, [1.48; 1.79]). Parenting stress significantly increased in the second lockdown (EMM = 16.3, [16.0; 16.6] versus pre-pandemic EMM = 16.0, [15.7; 16.4]) and continued rising post-pandemic (2024/2025: EMM = 17.4, [17.0; 17.7]). Poorer emotional well-being due to the pandemic was most pronounced during lockdowns. Financial difficulties, dissatisfaction with living conditions, additional childcare needs and working from home significantly predicted poorer mental health during the pandemic. Parents with young children appear to face ongoing psychological burden three years after the COVID-19 pandemic. This underscores the importance of continued monitoring and support for families with young children, alongside research to identify which subgroups face persistent difficulties and how these challenges affect child development.