Wearable plantar pressure-sensing systems and their fusion with kinematics for gait analysis

Abstract

Gait analysis requires the integrated interpretation of plantar loading, three-dimensional ground reaction force, and kinematic information. Although recent reviews have discussed plantar pressure technologies, diabetic-foot monitoring, testing protocols, artificial-intelligence-based pressure analysis, or intelligent-shoe gait estimation, a few have integrated plantar pressure measurement, bending-induced artifacts, multisensor kinetic–kinematic fusion, and clinical applications into a unified framework. This review summarizes technological routes from both academic research and commercial systems in plantar pressure measurement, including non-wearable reference systems, wearable normal-force measurement systems, and wearable three-dimensional force measurement systems. Particular attention is given to bending-induced motion artifacts caused by sole or insole deformation, together with mitigation strategies. Recognizing that plantar pressure information alone is insufficient for comprehensive gait interpretation, this review further organizes multisensor plantar measurement systems from the perspectives of sensor types, hardware placement strategies, and data-fusion methods. Finally, the clinical translation of plantar measurement data is discussed for disease-risk identification, rehabilitation monitoring, and personalized intervention.