Nexus Between Participation in Non-Formal Adult Education Programmes and Women’s Empowerment in Turkana County, Kenya

Abstract

Education plays a critical role in promoting women’s empowerment, yet women in nomadic pastoralist communities in Kenya continue to face barriers such as poverty, cultural restrictions, early marriage, domestic responsibilities, and limited access to formal schooling. In Turkana County, these challenges contribute to low literacy levels and limit women’s economic participation, decision-making, and social and political engagement. This study examined the nexus between participation in Non-Formal Adult Education (NFAE) programmes and women’s empowerment in Turkana County, guided by Dandikar’s (1986) Women Empowerment Theory. The study adopted a mixed-method approach using a descriptive survey design. Questionnaires were administered to 240 participants, yielding 233 valid responses, representing a 97% response rate. In addition, 8 individual interviews, 5 focus group discussions, and 4 key informant interviews were conducted. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS version 25 through descriptive and inferential statistics, including Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation and chi-square tests at the 0.05 significance level, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. The findings showed that the status of NFAE programmes in Turkana County was characterised by limited programme diversification, accessibility challenges, inadequate learning resources, and constraints related to infrastructure and facilitation. While 88.0% of participants accessed literacy and numeracy programmes, only 17.6% reported exposure to financial literacy, while less than 10% accessed vocational or health-related training. Accessibility remained a challenge, with 68.2% of participants travelling between 1 and 5 kilometres to access learning centres. The study further established that women participated in NFAE programmes through enrolment, attendance, and continued engagement, although participation was constrained by domestic responsibilities, mobility challenges, cultural factors, and other socioeconomic barriers. The findings further demonstrated a statistically significant positive relationship between participation in NFAE programmes and women’s empowerment (p < 0.05). Participation was associated with increased confidence, improved household decision-making, greater social interaction, and increased engagement in income-generating activities, particularly small-scale trading and farming. The findings therefore showed that participation in NFAE programmes contributed to women’s economic, social, political, and psychological empowerment, although the extent of these outcomes was influenced by the status and effectiveness of the programmes. The study concludes that NFAE programmes provide an important learning opportunity for women in Turkana County and that women’s participation in these programmes is positively associated with multidimensional empowerment. The study recommends that the Directorate of Adult Learning and Education, the County Government of Turkana, and NFAE implementing organisations strengthen programme accessibility through decentralised and mobile learning approaches; improve learning resources, infrastructure, and facilitator capacity; and expand practical, vocational, financial literacy, and livelihood-orientated training.