The hidden hazard in every sip: tackling microplastics in drinking water through detection and mitigation

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs), recognized as contaminants of emerging concern, have become global in drinking water systems, posing increasing risks to food safety, public health, and environmental sustainability. As drinking water represents a major route of human exposure, understanding the occurrence, detection, and mitigation of MPs is essential. This review comprehensively evaluates the predominant polymeric types of MPs detected in drinking water, including polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyamide (PA), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), together with their major sources and formation pathways. The review critically compares the principles, advantages, and limitations of current analytical techniques, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), micro-FTIR (μFTIR), Raman and micro-Raman (μRaman) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), chemical imaging, pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC–MS), and smartphone-based microscopy. Evidence from worldwide studies demonstrates that MPs are consistently detected in bottled, tap, and groundwater, with substantial variations in abundance, size, morphology, and polymer composition depending on water sources, treatment processes, and distribution systems. Conventional and emerging mitigation approaches, including coagulation–flocculation, membrane filtration, boiling, pulse clarification, and magnetic oxide-based composites, are also critically assessed with respect to their removal efficiencies and practical limitations. Furthermore, the review identifies key research gaps, including the lack of standardized analytical protocols, limited understanding of nanoplastics, and insufficient knowledge regarding long-term human health effects. By integrating current evidence on occurrence, analytical methodologies, health implications, and mitigation strategies, this review provides a comprehensive framework to support standardized monitoring and the development of effective approaches for improving drinking water quality and protecting human health.