Spatial attributes and perceived safety: The mediating Role of path choice in high-density Campus

Abstract

In high-density campuses built in the mid-20th century, compact layouts and limited visibility persistently challenge users' sense of safety. Although Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) offers a foundational framework, its spatial effectiveness in such contexts remains inadequately understood. This study investigates how spatial visibility, circulation clarity, and territoriality influence perceived safety, with a specific focus on the mediating role of path selection behavior. Survey data from 407 students on a high-density campus in Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Results reveal a clear structural hierarchy: spatial visibility and circulation clarity exert significant direct and indirect (via path choice) effects on perceived safety, whereas territoriality demonstrates only a weak indirect influence. These findings suggest that in compact campuses, safety perception is shaped primarily by movement-based spatial experience rather than static territorial cues alone. Accordingly, campus renewal should prioritize enhancing visual transparency and circulation legibility while treating territoriality as a supplementary design strategy.