Indian Knowledge Systems and the History of Science: Knowledge, Methods and Scientific Traditions

Abstract

Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) encompass a wide and historically layered range of intellectual traditions that developed across the Indian subcontinent. They include astronomy, mathematics, medicine, linguistics, philosophy, logic, metallurgy, architecture and other forms of technical and practical knowledge. These traditions were shaped through observation, calculation, reasoning, textual composition, oral instruction, commentary and sustained processes of transmission. This paper examines selected scientific traditions within the broader framework of IKS and asks how knowledge was produced, transmitted, assessed and transformed in pre-modern India. Particular attention is given to astronomy and mathematics, where systematic observation, numerical computation, geometrical reasoning, calendrical practice and the construction of astronomical models provide valuable evidence for the study of historical scientific activity. The paper also considers the importance of Sanskrit and other intellectual languages, manuscript cultures, and teacher–student relationships in preserving and developing technical knowledge. It argues that a critical engagement with Indian scientific traditions can enrich the global history of science by bringing different historical cultures of inquiry into conversation, while maintaining a clear distinction between pre-modern knowledge traditions and the methods and institutions of modern science.