Energy Measurement and Optimization of TinyML in Resource-Constrained Embedded Systems: A Systematic Mapping Study

Abstract

The rapid expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT) has increased the volume of data generated at the network edge, where many devices operate under severe memory, processing, and energy constraints. In this context, Tiny Machine Learning (TinyML) enables machine learning (ML) tasks to be executed on microcontrollers, smart sensors, and other resource-constrained platforms. However, the literature remains heterogeneous regarding the algorithms evaluated, energy-measurement methods, reported metrics, influencing factors, and optimization strategies. This study presents a systematic mapping of energy-aware TinyML research. It identifies the main models and learning approaches, classifies energy-evaluation methodologies and metrics, examines the technical factors affecting energy consumption, and organizes the reported optimization techniques into a structured taxonomy. The findings highlight the frequent use of convolutional and lightweight architectures, direct measurements and analytical estimations, and factors related to model architecture, hardware, communication, numerical precision, and input characteristics. The optimization strategies were grouped into model compression, hardware-aware design, system and communication optimization, and data and processing optimization. The results also reveal limited standardization in experimental platforms, measurement procedures, and reporting practices, limiting reproducibility and direct comparison across studies. This mapping provides an updated overview of the field and guidance for developing and evaluating more energy-efficient TinyML solutions.