Discovering Learning Rules that Shape Others

Abstract

In general-sum games, self-interested learners can reach outcomes that are poor for everyone, which has motivated methods that shape the opponent's learning. Methods like Learning with Opponent-Learning Awareness (LOLA), which differentiates through the opponent's learning process, and Model-Free Opponent Shaping (M-FOS), which uses model-free optimisation methods for long-horizon opponent shaping, have enabled mutual cooperation and exploitation of learners. However, these methods require access to the opponent's parameters, policy, rewards or learning rule during deployment. In single-agent reinforcement learning, update rules discovered by meta-learning have achieved state-of-the-art results (e.g. DiscoRL). These rules are separate from the policy they train and read only the agent's own experience. We hereby extend this framework to general-sum settings by introducing Discovered Update Rule for Opponent Shaping (DUOS). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first method to discover an update rule for an agent in general-sum games. DUOS meta-trains the rule to maximise the agent's expected return over its lifetime, and updates an inner network using the agent's own experience. We show that our discovered rule exhibits behaviour consistent with opponent shaping without reading opponent policies or parameters, and ranks 1st in normalised mean score and 1st in self-play among tournament entrants.