Artificial intelligence or the teacher? The effect of ChatGPT and teacher feedback on writing achievement in foreign language instruction

Abstract

Introduction: Generative artificial intelligence tools such as ChatGPT are increasingly used to provide writing feedback, yet their effectiveness relative to teacher feedback and across distinct writing dimensions remains underexplored, particularly in languages other than English. This study compares the effects of ChatGPT-assisted feedback and teacher feedback on the writing achievement of B2-level learners of Turkish as a foreign language. Methods: An explanatory sequential mixed-methods design was adopted. The study group comprised 18 students enrolled at the Turkish Teaching Center (TÖMER) of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University. Over an eight-week intervention, the experimental group ( n  = 9) received feedback through ChatGPT and the control group ( n  = 9) received feedback from the teacher, using an identical seven-category feedback guideline. Quantitative data were gathered through a pre-testpost-test control-group quasi-experimental design and analyzed with t-tests; qualitative data were obtained through a written process-evaluation form and analyzed thematically. Results: Writing achievement increased significantly in both groups, yet no significant difference emerged between the groups in their post-test scores. At the sub-dimension level, ChatGPT proved more effective in structural areas such as grammar, vocabulary, and spelling and punctuation, whereas the teacher held a clear advantage in inter-sentential planning and organization. The qualitative data indicated that ChatGPT fostered learner autonomy by lowering the anxiety of being evaluated, while the teacher was more capable of providing motivation and building contextual depth. Discussion: The two feedback sources are statistically equivalent overall but display a division of labor across writing dimensions, complementing rather than replacing each other. The study argues that artificial intelligence should be integrated into a hybrid model that enriches the feedback process rather than replacing the teacher.