Plastic waste, circular economy, and atmospheric microplastics: A review of current challenges and the application of moss biomonitoring

Abstract

Plastics have become indispensable materials in modern society; however, their continuous production and consumption have led to significant environmental challenges associated with plastic waste accumulation and the occurrence of microplastics. This review provides an overview of global plastic production, plastic waste generation, and waste management practices, with particular emphasis on circular economy strategies aimed at improving resource efficiency and reducing plastic pollution. The current situation in North Macedonia is also discussed, highlighting the challenges and opportunities related to plastic waste management and recycling. Special attention is given to microplastics as emerging environmental contaminants. Current knowledge regarding their sources, environmental distribution, and potential ecological and human health impacts is summarized. Recent studies indicate that atmospheric transport represents an important pathway for the dispersal and deposition of microplastic particles, contributing to their occurrence even in remote regions. The review further examines the application of moss biomonitoring as a cost effective and efficient approach for assessing atmospheric microplastic deposition. Preliminary observations from a European monitoring initiative, including samples from North Macedonia, confirm the widespread presence of atmospheric microplastics and reveal spatial variations in their concentrations and polymer composition. These findings highlight the importance of harmonized monitoring methodologies and the integration of environmental monitoring with circular economy and waste management strategies to mitigate microplastic pollution.