A two-layer blockchain-based VEC (TBVEC) task offloading framework, which extends consensus nodes to parked vehicles (PVs) to improve the scalability of edge computing and demonstrates the security of task offloading and overall system efficiency.
Abstract
Blockchain provides a secure and trusted environment for task offloading in Vehicle Edge Computing (VEC). Nevertheless, single-layer blockchain architecture exhibits low transaction processing efficiency and insufficient scalability in VEC environments. Accordingly, we present a two-layer blockchain-based VEC (TBVEC) task offloading framework, which extends consensus nodes to parked vehicles (PVs) to improve the scalability of edge computing. Specifically, a Hotstuff–BLSPBFT two-layer blockchain is constructed by employing Hotstuff for the lower-layer blockchain and BLSPBFT for the upper-layer blockchain, thereby improving transaction efficiency of the blockchain system. Then, sharding is performed on consensus nodes of the lower-layer blockchain, and an improved K-Means algorithm is adopted for grouping optimization. Furthermore, utility functions of user vehicles and Road Side Units (RSUs) are formulated based on a two-layer blockchain. A game-based Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) model, equipped with two Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) agents, is developed to optimize user and RSU utility functions. The model determines the optimal task offloading strategies and transaction pricing policies, while jointly optimizing the number of consensus node groups and the quantity of nodes within each group to maximize the utility function. Experimental results validate that the proposed scheme not only ensures the security of task offloading but also significantly enhances overall system efficiency.
The proposed OIBTO framework employs a lightweight Proof-of-Authority consensus within a two-tier architecture consisting of a vehicle layer and an edge layer, and proposes an Improved Starfish Optimization Algorithm (ISFOA) that utilizes chaotic mapping and genetic mutation to optimize offloading decisions and task partitioning ratios, aiming to minimize a priority-weighted combination of latency and energy consumption.
Blockchain provides secure and decentralized data storage. Normal blockchains permanently store data. Mutable blockchains allow users to change data, but this reduces tamper resistance. This paper tests both methods in PaB-PIF, a hybrid architecture for IoT-Fog networks. Our design uses an immutable mainchain in the cloud layer and mutable sidechains in the fog layer. We analyze throughput, latency, and tamper resistance using math models and simulations. Results show that blockchain greatly improves network security. Without blockchain, the network has zero tamper resistance. The mutable blockchain in the fog layer has a tamper resistance of 0.58. The immutable blockchain in the cloud layer reaches 0.99. However, this extra security increases latency and reduces throughput. The mutable blockchain has lower latency, so it is a good fit for the fog layer. The immutable blockchain provides maximum security, which is best for the cloud layer. This trade-off works well for IoT systems like the Internet of Vehicles, where data integrity and legal rules are essential. We also compare PaB-PIF with an IoT-Fog network that has no blockchain.
Marco Scarpa, Mohammad Sadeghzadeh, S. Javanmardi et al.· Applied Sciences· 0 citations
Blockchain technology enables decentralized trust, yet traditional blockchain networks face critical scalability limitations under large-scale deployments. Sharding improves throughput through parallel processing, but existing sharded BFT architectures still suffer from severe hierarchical coupling between shards and the verification committee. Moreover, the complex asynchronous competition and backoff/retransmission dynamics in sharded blockchain services remain largely unmodeled, leaving the network-level steady-state behavior of sharded blockchains poorly understood. To address these challenges, we propose D2S-BFT, a novel Decoupled Double-Star Byzantine Fault-Tolerant architecture, which physically decouples local intra-shard consensus from global verification. For rigorous performance evaluation, we establish a randomized-service double-star service system and cast the cross-shard competition mechanism as a finite-source Markov chain. We derive the state transition probability matrix under general load conditions, compute the extended sojourn time, and construct an end-to-end transaction on-chain latency equation that explicitly incorporates encryption overhead, network delay, and queuing delay. The resulting D2S queuing model, expressed in the non-classical Kendall notation L/G/n=2/inf/L-RSS, provides strict theoretical boundary constraints on system performance. It demonstrates that D2S-BFT can effectively alleviate transaction congestion and ensure robust operation, while also laying a rigorous analytical foundation for model-driven configuration optimization in large-scale dynamic blockchain environments.
Ji-Qiang Liu, Lijun Sun, Xiao Chen et al.· 2026 International Conferenc...· 0 citations
Experimental results on a hardware prototype demonstrate that compared with no-blockchain trust-by-default baselines, the zero-trust overhead of TrustAgentNet is dominated by off-chain inference, while the blockchain layer incurs minor ledger costs via the ledger-IPFS storage and on/off-chain integration design.
Yayu Gao, Yong Xiao, Hao Hu et al.· IEEE Transactions on Cogniti...· 0 citations
A blockchain-based dynamically adaptive restructuring framework that enables real-time IoV cluster restructuring by splitting overloaded IoVs to reduce communication overhead, or merging nearby IoVs to optimize resource utilization, offering a proactive, adaptive security paradigm for intelligent transportation frameworks.
Jiawei Shi, Yebo Feng, Konglin Zhu et al.· ACM Transactions on Internet...· 0 citations
: Internet of Vehicles (IoV) enable enable communication between vehicles and infrastructure to improve road safety and traffic efficiency. However, authenticating vehicles across different administrative domains remains a challenge. This work proposes a blockchain-based authentication framework that enables secure cross-domain communication between vehicles. The proposed architecture combines Ethereum smart contracts with a Trusted Authority (TA) and Key Generation Center (KGC) to maintain decentralized domain trust while allowing efficient local authentication. A prototype system was implemented using a WiFi Router as the Road Side Unit (RSU) for network connectivity, a Raspberry Pi 5 hosting the TA and KGC servers, ESP32 micro-controllers as vehicle nodes, and a local Ethereum blockchain using Hardhat. Experiments were conducted with vehicle counts ranging from 100 to 500 and domain counts from 2 to 10. The system maintained a packet delivery ratio of 100% across all experiments while achieving average latency between 49 ms and 206 ms and throughput between 391 and 723 requests per second. The results demonstrate that blockchain-assisted authentication can be integrated into IoV systems without significant performance degradation.
Priya Jyotiyana, J. Kar· Proceedings of the 23rd Inte...· 0 citations