Aflatoxins and co-occurring mycotoxins in poultry feed chains (2020–25): A systematic review of occurrence, toxicity, monitoring and mitigation

Abstract

Aflatoxins, particularly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, remain persistent contaminants of maize- and groundnut-derived ingredients used in poultry feed, reducing bird productivity and creating consumer exposure through residues in eggs and edible tissues. We systematically searched PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar for peer-reviewed primary studies published from January 2020 to December 2025. About 78 studies met the eligibility criteria; secondary sources were used only for contextual interpretation and were excluded from the PRISMA evidence count. Because the study designs, exposure matrices, analytical methods and outcome measures were highly heterogeneous, the evidence was synthesised using structured quantitative summaries and narrative comparison rather than statistical pooling. Across regions, AFB1 was the predominant aflatoxin and frequently co-occurred with deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A and fumonisins. Mechanistic evidence linked aflatoxicosis to cytochrome P450-mediated bioactivation, oxidative and mitochondrial injury, immune dysregulation and intestinal-barrier disruption with mixture studies indicating additive or synergistic toxicity under some exposure conditions. Aluminosilicate clays and yeast-derived products showed the most consistent evidence of mitigation, although nutrient interactions, product variability, long-term safety and cost require consideration. Probiotics, synbiotics, enzymes and phytochemicals provided complementary protection, whereas nanomaterials, plasma-activated water and postbiotics require further safety, scale-up and regulatory evaluation. Rapid immunoassays are suitable for routine screening, while liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) remains essential for confirmatory multi-mycotoxin analysis. Integrated prevention, risk-based surveillance and context-specific multimodal mitigation are therefore required across poultry-feed chains.