Jul 2026· Indonesian Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Analytics· Vol 5, pp. 271-290· 0 citations
Abstract
Porang cultivation is characterized by delayed economic returns and high exposure to market and climate uncertainties, requiring farming households to adopt adaptive livelihood strategies. Understanding how households manage income volatility and welfare stability in such conditions is critical for rural development policy. This study examines how porang-farming households in Bontolempangang Village construct and organize their livelihood strategies to manage risk, stabilize income, and reduce vulnerability. Using a qualitative case-study approach, the study analyzes household livelihood structures, income sources, and adaptive strategies across on-farm, off-farm, and non-farm sectors. Data were examined through a sustainable livelihoods framework to identify patterns of diversification and risk management. The findings reveal that livelihood patterns are multi-stranded and risk-oriented. Households adopt adaptive strategies grounded in a combination of multiple income sources, including: (i) agricultural livelihood engineering (intensification and extensification), (ii) occupational and institutional diversification, and (iii) spatial strategies such as temporary/circular migration and remittances. Agriculture remains the primary livelihood base, with maize functioning as a short-cycle cash-flow bridge, rice as a subsistence anchor with marketable surplus, and cattle raising as a precautionary liquid asset. These strategies are reinforced by off-farm bamboo crafts and non-farm income (e.g., construction work and village institutional honoraria), which improve cash-flow stability and facilitate consumption smoothing. Porang-farming households construct resilient livelihood systems through strategic diversification and cross-sectoral income buffering. The integration of agricultural and non-agricultural activities serves as an adaptive mechanism to manage delayed returns and mitigate economic vulnerability under uncertain market and environmental conditions.
The Hilsa fishery has long underpinned livelihoods and local trade in South Govindia Village, Chandpur District, but recent socio-environmental shifts are reshaping household economies. This study specifically investigates how ecological pressures and market–institutional factors drive a transition from Hilsa-dependent livelihoods toward diversified income strategies among fishing households. Between January and June 2024, we used a mixed-methods design: a stratified random household survey of 210 fishing households, 12 key informant interviews, four focus group discussions, and participant observation; quantitative data were analyzed with descriptive and inferential statistics and qualitative data through thematic coding. Findings cluster into two main themes: (1) ecological–production stress, evidenced by declining catches, seasonal fishing bans, and climate-related river changes that reduce household fishing income; and (2) market–institutional vulnerabilities, including dependence on intermediaries, limited market bargaining power, and inadequate, short-term compensation that together increase indebtedness and push households toward nonfishing income sources (wage labor, small trade, migration, and aquaculture). Women’s growing role in supplementary activities partly cushions income loss but does not fully offset structural insecurity. The study contributes empirical evidence of a livelihood shift from mono-dependent fishing to diversified survival strategies and argues that targeted, integrated policies—linking cooperative marketing, access to credit, and participatory fisheries governance—are needed to support sustainable economic resilience in Hilsa-dependent communities.
[Perikanan Hilsa telah lama menjadi penopang penghidupan dan perdagangan lokal di Desa Govindia Selatan, Distrik Chandpur, namun pergeseran sosial-lingkungan yang terjadi baru-baru ini sedang mengubah ekonomi rumah tangga. Penelitian ini secara khusus menyelidiki bagaimana tekanan ekologis dan faktor-faktor institusional-pasar mendorong transisi dari penghidupan yang bergantung pada Hilsa menuju strategi pendapatan yang beragam di kalangan rumah tangga nelayan. Antara bulan Januari dan Juni 2024, kami menggunakan desain metode campuran: survei rumah tangga acak bertingkat terhadap 210 rumah tangga nelayan, 12 wawancara informan kunci, empat diskusi kelompok terpumpun (FGD), dan observasi partisipan; data kuantitatif dianalisis dengan statistik deskriptif dan inferensial serta data kualitatif melalui pengodean tematik. Temuan mengelompok ke dalam dua tema utama: (1) tekanan produksi-ekologis, dibuktikan dengan menurunnya hasil tangkapan, larangan menangkap ikan musiman, dan perubahan sungai terkait iklim yang mengurangi pendapatan rumah tangga dari menangkap ikan; serta (2) kerentanan institusional-pasar, termasuk ketergantungan pada perantara, terbatasnya daya tawar pasar, dan kompensasi jangka pendek yang tidak memadai yang secara bersama-sama meningkatkan utang dan mendorong rumah tangga ke arah sumber pendapatan non-perikanan (pekerja upahan, perdagangan kecil, migrasi, dan akuakultur). Peran perempuan yang semakin berkembang dalam aktivitas tambahan sebagian turut meredam hilangnya pendapatan, namun tidak sepenuhnya menutupi ketidakamanan struktural. Studi ini memberikan bukti empiris tentang pergeseran penghidupan dari ketergantungan tunggal pada perikanan menuju strategi bertahan hidup yang beragam dan berargumen bahwa kebijakan yang terarah dan terintegrasi—yang menghubungkan pemasaran kooperatif, akses kredit, dan tata kelola perikanan partisipatif—diperlukan untuk mendukung ketahanan ekonomi yang berkelanjutan di komunitas yang bergantung pada Hilsa.]
Md. Hasan Khan, D. Amin, Md Nur Uddin Hossain et al.· SiRad: Pelita Wawasan· 0 citations
Rural farm households continue to face significant risks from climate change, resulting in many of them diversifying their livelihood sources into other income‐generating activities to increase their incomes and improve food and nutrition security. In this study, we examine the drivers and impact of farm households' participation in livelihood diversification as a climate change adaptation strategy among livestock farmers in rural Pakistan. We employ a multinomial endogenous switching regression (MESR) model to account for potential selection bias from both observed and unobserved factors. The empirical results indicate that the average temperature and precipitation contribute significantly to the joint adoption of livestock and non‐farm activities among rural households. In addition, the total number of earning members in the household, total cultivated land, distance to city, and climate change information are significant drivers of participation in livelihood diversification strategies. The results also demonstrate that diversified households with three livelihood sources are more food secure compared to households who did not diversify or are less diversified with two livelihood sources. Our findings suggest that development policies in rural Pakistan should promote livelihood diversification by engaging farm households in other income‐generating activities to improve their food security.
Mahwish Arshad, A. Abdulai· Agribusiness· 0 citations
The dynamic change of livelihoods in ethnic minority areas has become increasingly critical under the combined pressures of climate change, market integration and institutional reform. This study aims to identify how livelihood strategies have evolved among mountainous households in Quang Tri province, Vietnam and to explain why livelihood transition does not always reduce vulnerability. Evidence was collected from focus group discussions across three livelihood groups: forestry-based, non-farm and mixed-livelihood households. The findings reveal significant livelihood changes during the 2015-2024 period, shaped by the expansion of the East-West Economic Corridor, stricter forest governance, Payments for Forest Environmental Services and repeated climate-related shocks. Mixed-livelihood households showed stronger adaptive capacity due to diversified income portfolios and social networks, while forestry-dependent households remained vulnerable because of declining forest resources, limited market access and dependence on long-rotation plantations. Non-farm households achieved relatively more stable incomes but became increasingly exposed to labor market volatility. By applying a Drivers-Strategies-Outcomes analytical framework, this study clarifies the mechanisms through which institutional, market and environmental drivers translate into uneven livelihood outcomes. The findings contribute to livelihood adaptation research by showing that adaptive effectiveness is determined less by the type of livelihood activity than by households’ capacity to access markets, mobilize resources and organize production.
B. Duc, D. Tinh, D. Minh· International Research Journ...· 0 citations
This study investigates the extent and determinants of livelihood diversification among integrated crop- livestock farming households in North-West Nigeria. The study aimed at assessing the integrated crop- livestock farming practices and analyse the factors influencing the livelihood activities of the farmers in the study area. The study used a multistage sampling procedure consisting of 3 states, 3 agricultural zones, 21 LGAs and 84 villages. Data were collected from 405 respondents through structured questionnaires andanalysed using descriptive statistics, the Simpson Diversification Index (SDI) and Tobit regression. Findings revealed a moderate level of livelihood diversification, with an average SDI of 0.58. Farmers engaged in diverse on-farm, off-farm, and non-farm income-generating activities, with on-farm income accounting for 66.66% of the total annual household income, followed by non-farm (23.57%) and off-farm (9.77%) sources. Tobit regression results showed that household size, gender of the household head, and access to credit were significant at the 5% level, respectively while education level and income from various sources were significant at the 1% level, all positively influencing livelihood diversification. Conversely, farm size had a negative and significant relationship, suggesting that larger farms often reduce the likelihood of engaging in alternative livelihood strategies. The study concludes that diversification is a critical strategy for income stability and risk management among smallholders. It recommends enhancing access to credit, promotingrural farmer education and improving rural infrastructure to sustain and expand livelihood diversification.
M. Abdullahi, M. Sulaiman· Agro-Science· 0 citations
The article examines the livelihood patterns of farmers in Subarnapur district, Odisha, and how social welfare schemes have impacted their livelihoods and support in the agricultural field. 70 per cent of the district’s population depends on agriculture as their main source of livelihood. The study areas were selected in Sindhol village, Ullunda Block, Subarnapur District, to understand the cropping patterns and the livelihoods of the farmers. Purposive sampling, also known as non-probability sampling, was selected to choose participants who are active farmers in the village; therefore, 42 farmers were selected to explore their understanding of social welfare schemes and their impact, as well as the challenges they face in maintaining sustainable livelihoods. To analyse the data, a descriptive research design was used to comprehend the current situation and challenges faced by the farmers in the study areas. The selected farmers were small and marginal, with low educational qualifications to comprehend the livelihood patterns of the farmers. Paddy cultivation is a primary source of livelihood in the region. Irrigation facilities are robust and benefit the farmers. KALIA, PM-KISAN, and Krishi Sinchai Yojana significantly enable farmers to maintain sustainable livelihoods in the study areas. The farmer's sale of the product at Mandi is a key factor in obtaining the minimum support price (MSP), a key finding of the study. In the study areas, the most critical challenge identified is crop destruction caused by wild animals, specifically elephants and boars. Despite high awareness of other schemes, farmers reported an inability to secure government compensation for wildlife-induced crop damage.
Sudam Tandi, Sumant Kerketta, Ashisan Ekka· Social Science Journal for A...· 0 citations
Aims: This study compared the socio-economic characteristics, livelihood capital assets, livelihood strategies, and livelihood outcomes of sandbar and non-sandbar farmers in the char areas of northern Bangladesh.
Study Design: Cross-sectional comparative study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in Kaunia Upazila of Rangpur District, Bangladesh. Data were collected from October to December 2024.
Methodology: A total of 247 farmers, including 195 sandbar farmers and 52 non-sandbar farmers, were selected using stratified random sampling. Quantitative data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire, complemented by focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Livelihood conditions were assessed using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. Descriptive statistics and independent-samples t-tests were used for data analysis.
Results: Sandbar farmers had significantly higher annual household income (BDT 529.47 ± 350.74 thousand), farm size (0.91 ± 1.10 ha), farming knowledge (28.09 ± 5.47), and social participation (12.63 ± 2.60) than non-sandbar farmers (P < 0.05). Human capital (P = 0.026) and social capital (P = 0.003) were also significantly higher among sandbar farmers, whereas natural, physical, and financial capital did not differ significantly. Resource-use typology showed that 99.2% of respondents depended primarily on natural resource-based livelihoods and 86.6% practised diversified livelihood strategies, with greater diversification among sandbar farmers. Although sandbar farmers recorded higher mean food security and environmental sustainability scores and a larger proportion of households in the high food security and high sustainability categories, these differences were not statistically significant (P = 0.161 and P = 0.109, respectively).
Conclusion: Compared with non-sandbar farmers, sandbar farmers demonstrated stronger livelihood assets. However, because this cross-sectional study identifies associations rather than causal effects, the findings should be interpreted cautiously. Strengthening extension services, technical support, access to quality inputs, credit, and market linkages may facilitate wider adoption of sandbar farming in the char areas of Bangladesh.
Suraia Akhter, M. H. Rahman, M. G. Farouque et al.· Asian Journal of Agricultura...· 0 citations