Four-dimensional (4D) food printing extends additive manufacturing by integrating stimuli-responsive edible materials that enable programmed transformations in food structure, texture, color, and nutrient release over time. This review critically evaluates the material-structure–function relationships governing these dynamic food systems, with emphasis on rheological requirements, transformation mechanisms, and process control strategies relevant to food production and processing. Printable bioinks typically require shear-thinning behavior and viscoelastic balance (storage modulus G′ ≈102–104 Pa) to ensure extrusion fidelity and structural stability while enabling post-printing responsiveness to external stimuli such as heat, hydration, and pH. Polysaccharide hydrogels, protein-polysaccharide composites, starch matrices, and lipid-based emulsions are examined as functional substrates capable of programmable swelling, gel contraction, phase transition, and controlled bioactive release. Experimental systems demonstrate shape deformation exceeding 70° under microwave activation and up to ~196% improvement in gel strength in protein-enhanced matrices, highlighting the role of compositional tuning and microstructural design. Strategies, including anisotropic infill architectures, gradient material deposition, and AI-assisted formulation optimization, provide improved control over deformation kinetics and nutrient delivery. However, industrial translation remains constrained by printing throughput, storage stability of metastable structures, and regulatory validation of stimuli-responsive food. Integrating material engineering, digital manufacturing, and predictive modeling will be essential for advancing 4D food printing toward scalable applications in nutrition, clinical diets, and adaptive food systems.
R. Abdelsalam, Mohamed Fawzy Ramadan· Food Production, Processing...· 0 citations
Petroselinic acid (PeA), a rare monounsaturated fatty acid (C18:1Δ6), has garnered scientific interest due to its unique cis-Δ6 double bond configuration and limited botanical distribution. Predominantly found in the Apiaceae family (e.g., parsley, coriander, dill), PeA exhibits distinct physicochemical traits such as enhanced oxidative stability, polymorphic control favoring β′ crystals, and amphiphilic interfacial behavior. These properties render it valuable in food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and oleochemical industries. This review comprehensively explores PeA’s biosynthesis, emphasizing acyl-ACP pathways and metabolic engineering strategies to enhance accumulation in plants and microbes. Various extraction methods, including green alternatives such as ultrasound-assisted and supercritical CO₂ extraction, are evaluated for efficiency and sustainability. PeA undergoes selective chemical transformations (e.g., epoxidation, ozonolysis) and enzymatic modifications, facilitating its application in surfactants, polymers, and bio-based lubricants. Functionally, PeA supports structured emulsions, improves product stability, and promotes health benefits, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and metabolic regulatory effects. Challenges in biosynthetic yield, industrial scalability, and bioavailability are also discussed. Ultimately, PeA emerges as a promising bioactive lipid, with future potential dependent on integrated efforts in green chemistry, biotechnology, and health research. The unique Δ6-double bond gives PeA a distinct structure and functional properties. PeA-rich oils show strong oxidative stability and β′-crystal polymorphism. Green extractions optimize PeA yield with minimal environmental impact. PeA exhibits anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and metabolic health benefits. Bioengineering advances enhance PeA production in plants and microbes.
R. Abdelsalam, Mohamed Fawzy Ramadan· Chemical and Biological Tech...· 0 citations
