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small language model

3,468 papers

#artificial intelligence Preprint Sep 2026

Communication between Frozen Large Language Models via Prompt Optimization in a Referential Game

Communication between two frozen large language models from different providers, with different tokenizers, accessed through their API endpoints is studied, finding that successful place value communication in some runs is rare.

V. Anand, Muthu Kumar Chandrasekaran, Shiva Chaitanya · 0 citations
#artificial intelligence Review Sep 2026

Overview of the TREC 2025 Million Large Language Models track

The TREC Million LLM Track operationalizes a retrieval-based paradigm in which an assistant agent infers expertise dynamically by examining models'observable behavior, providing the first large-scale benchmark for expertise retrieval in agentic AI.

Evangelos Kanoulas, Panagiotis Eustratiadis, Jamie Callan et al. · 0 citations
#artificial intelligence Preprint Sep 2026

Don't Inoculate Everything: Stratified Inoculation Prompting Narrows Backdoor Triggers and Preserves Desired Traits

Supervised fine-tuning can teach language models undesired behaviours alongside desired ones. Inoculation prompting (IP) aims to limit unwanted generalisation by requesting the undesired behaviour during training and removing the request at inference. However, undesired behaviour can still appear under unrelated prompt...

Kajetan Dymkiewicz, Tim Farrelly, Adam Práda et al. · 0 citations
#artificial intelligence Preprint Sep 2026

Action-Space Shaping for LLM Agents: Measuring and Mitigating Tool-Schema Bias

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown strong performance on tool-use agentic tasks when given a fixed tool schema. Yet a tool schema is not the action space of an agent; it is merely one interface representation of it. The same executable action can be exposed through many different, functionally equivalent tool defi...

Yinhong Liu, Zhi-Li Tan, Zi-Lin Wang et al. · 0 citations
#artificial intelligence Review Sep 2026

Simulating Respondents, Not Single Questions: Coherent Survey Generation with Large Language Models

FullRespondent-LLM (FR-LLM), which fine-tunes two specialized LLMs: a marginal model for each item's response distribution and a respondent-level autoregressive model for dependencies across answers, yields complete questionnaires with realistic cross-item relationships while retaining strong item-level accuracy.

Ji Huang, Meng-Fei Li, Shuai Shao · 0 citations
#artificial intelligence Preprint Sep 2026

RSI-Router: Evolving Subtask-Level LLM Routing and Skills for Cost-Efficient Agents

This paper introduces RSI-router, a routing framework that constructs subtask-level model assignments and model-specific skills through recursive self-improvement over accumulated experience and establishes a stronger performance--cost Pareto frontier than 9 routing methods.

Hao Li, Hang-Fan Zhang, Zhi-Yao Cui et al. · 0 citations
#artificial intelligence Review Sep 2026

ControlScope: Workflow Revision and Reliability in LLM Agents

ControlScope compares continuing generated code, editing the next tool call's data arguments, and replacing the unfinished workflow from the same public execution state to evaluate one-time and repeated reviews across filesystem tasks, ALFWorld, and AppWorld.

Jing-Jie Ning, Xue-Qi Li, Yi-Bo Kong et al. · 1 citation
#artificial intelligence Preprint Sep 2026

READ-Bench: Benchmarking Historical Instance Retrieval for Time-Series Diagnosis

Time-series diagnostic systems rarely rely on retrieving relevant historical cases, and when they do, retrieval is evaluated only indirectly through downstream prediction. We introduce READ-Bench, a benchmark for historical-case retrieval across 12 diagnostic datasets, centered on multivariate time series, that defines...

Gerardo Pastrana, Hao-Jun Li, Dhruv Mehta et al. · 0 citations
#artificial intelligence Review Sep 2026

A Benchmark for LLM's Understanding of Middle School and High School Science Topics

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly integrated into educational settings, yet educators lack robust, standards-aligned tools to evaluate their effectiveness in K-12 science contexts. Existing benchmarks predominantly assess general language or advanced scientific reasoning, leaving a critical gap in understan...

Noah L. Schroeder, Yessy Eka Ambarwati, Yu-Ji Zhang et al. · 0 citations

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