A systematic literature review of CDL in educational contexts finds five gaps are identified, concerning measurement instruments, the functional-versus-critical divide, affective dimensions, institutional barriers, and generative AI, with future directions proposed.
Abstract
The convergence of artificial intelligence, digitalization, and social media has exposed the insufficiency of functional digital literacy as an educational outcome, intensifying attention to Critical Digital Literacy (CDL) as a construct concerned with the ideological and structural logics of digital platforms rather than mere operational use. CDL scholarship nonetheless remains fragmented and lacks a stable, shared taxonomy of its dimensions. This study reports a systematic literature review, following the PRISMA 2020 protocol, of CDL in educational contexts. A Scopus search yielded 130 records, narrowed to 73 after automated screening and to 49 after a stringent CDL-focus eligibility criterion. Qualitative designs dominate the corpus (~55%), followed by conceptual work (~31%), while validated quantitative measurement remains rare (four studies). Inductive synthesis identifies eight recurring CDL dimensions, spanning critical-analytical, socio-political, ethical, identity-based, productive, and civic concerns. None of the 49 included studies directly addresses vocational (VET) teacher education, despite vocational teachers' need to combine technical fluency with critical disposition. Five gaps are identified, concerning measurement instruments, the functional-versus-critical divide, affective dimensions, institutional barriers, and generative AI, with future directions proposed. The synthesis is a necessary step toward a dedicated CDL framework for pre-service vocational teachers.
Digital literacy has become a critical competency in higher education, yet its relationship with academic performance remains insufficiently understood due to fragmented empirical evidence. This systematic literature review synthesizes findings from 42 peer-reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2025, identified through Scopus, Web of Science, and ERIC databases following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The synthesis reveals that 85.7% of included studies reported a positive association between digital literacy and academic performance, with effect sizes ranging from r = 0.34 to r = 0.62. Importantly, the evidence suggests that this relationship is not direct but operates through psychological mediators, particularly self-efficacy and self-regulated learning, and is conditioned by structural moderators including institutional infrastructure, socioeconomic status, and disciplinary context. Unlike previous reviews that predominantly examined direct effects, this study proposes the Digital-Ecological Nexus framework, integrating Social Cognitive Theory and Ecological Systems Theory to conceptualize the multi-pathway, conditionally dependent nature of this relationship. The framework offers a synthesis-derived moderated-mediation model that accounts for both individual agency and contextual boundary conditions. These findings provide evidence-based directions for educational policy and pedagogical design, while future research should prioritize longitudinal designs and formal validation of the proposed framework.
Nurlaili, Dina Martha Fitri, Bayu Saputra· Indonesian Technology and Ed...· 0 citations
Key directions include region-specific research on critical-reflective CDL in Southeast Asia, a dedicated CDL-specific instrument, and continued tracking of the emerging artificial-intelligence-related sub-theme.
A. R. Islami, Ade Gafar Abdullah, Dadang Lukman Hakim et al.· Jurnal Pembelajaran Bimbinga...· 0 citations
This systematic review synthesises empirical and conceptual evidence on university pedagogical practices that cultivate critical thinking and, through it, student intellectual autonomy in digitally mediated learning environments and identifies gaps concerning long-term transfer, equity, and the assessment of autonomy in AI-saturated contexts.
Mayra Carolina Márquez López, Daniela Guardo Rua, Hugo Leonardo Gómez Hernández et al.· Journal of Intelligent Decis...· 0 citations
As generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) becomes increasingly integrated into university contexts, it is essential to understand students' perspectives of the competencies needed to apply its tools for academic writing. This study conceptualized critical GenAI literacy and developed a quantitative survey from theoretical and expert sources.
The survey was then administered to undergraduate students, whose responses were randomly divided into two independent subsamples for exploratory (
n
= 214) and confirmatory (
n
= 273) factor analyses.
Based on the initial validation results, the final self-report instrument comprised four dimensions: Functional Literacy, Agency and Autonomy, Ethical and Responsible Use, and Reflective Use. The final 23-item instrument captured both applied and critical dimensions of GenAI use in academic writing and demonstrated preliminary structural validity and acceptable internal consistency within a single institutional context.
This study provides a foundation for future research on GenAI literacy and supports the development of pedagogical interventions that align with students' critical GenAI literacy levels.
Youmen Chaaban, Hiba Naccache, S. Qadhi· Frontiers in Education· 0 citations
The integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) into face-to-face compulsory education has accelerated globally, but the conceptual definition and pedagogical application of Digital Education (DE) remain unclear. This systematic review explores how DE is defined, implemented, and assessed in in-person primary and secondary school settings. Guided by PRISMA methodology, 33 peer-reviewed empirical studies published between January 2012 and June 2025 were selected from Scopus and Web of Science, and through reference checking. Methodological quality and potential sources of bias were appraised using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT), and that appraisal informed the interpretation of the evidence. The results indicate significant ambiguity surrounding the term DE, which is often conflated with ICT use or digital competence. While many studies report positive outcomes in student engagement and basic skill acquisition, few articulate clear operational frameworks or pedagogical strategies for effective implementation. DE is predominantly applied to low-cognitive-demand tasks and is underused in promoting deeper learning. Key barriers include insufficient teacher training, fragmented educational policies, and infrastructural limitations. Nonetheless, when digital tools are intentionally combined with pedagogical goals—such as personalized instruction, learner autonomy, and content creation—DE demonstrates potential to improve motivation and support achievement. The findings suggest that well-designed DE can contribute to educational sustainability by strengthening learning opportunities, supporting equity and inclusion, and advancing Sustainable Development Goal 4 (Quality Education), but they also highlight the need for coherent policies, teacher training, and equitable access to digital resources.
Héctor Martínez García, Marta Rubio Gómez-Cadiñanos, T. García et al.· Sustainability· 0 citations
Introduction: Assessing Teacher Digital Competence (TDC) in Early Childhood Education (ECE) isessential for develop mentally appropriate digital integration. TDC refers specifically to the pedagogical and professional application of digital technologies in educational settings, distinct from general digital literacy or broader digital competence. However, the methodological quality—defined as the rigor, transparency, and coherence of study design and reporting—and psychometric transparency—understood as the explicit reporting of validity and reliability evidence—of TD Cassessment in ECE remain unclear. Objective: This typology was developed to support a structured comparison of reporting transparency among studies evaluating TDC in ECE. Materials and methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, this systematic review synthesized empirical studies published between 2006 and 2024 and indexed in Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, and Education Database. Inclusion criteria focused on TDC assessment in ECE. Data extraction covered conceptual frameworks, instruments, psychometric reporting, and evaluator profiles. Heterogeneity was analyzed across theoretical frameworks, construct operationalization, and validation reporting. Results: Eighteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Findings reveal a predominance of quantitative self-assessment questionnaires (77.8%) and substantial heterogeneity in conceptual anchoring and validation practices. While frameworks such as TPACK were frequently used, 22.2% of studies did not report anexplicit conceptual framework, and 27.8% did not report specific reliability or validity evidence for the instruments used. This absence primarily reflects limitations in reporting transparency ratherthan intrinsic study quality. Operational competences and attitudes dominated the literature,whereas digital safety, collaboration, and assessment practices were underrepresented. The fieldwould benefit from clearer methodological standards and more consistent reporting ofmeasurement properties to enhance comparability and evidence-based decision-making.Conclusions: Strengthening psychometric transparency and diversifying evaluation profiles maysupport more robust TDC assessment and more equitable digital integration in ECE.
Diego Fernando Ávila Clavijo, Cristina Mercader Juan· Sophia· 0 citations