The classification and validity scoring schemes presented in this study contribute to the theory-driven application of eye tracking in IVR, and offer guidance for improving measurement validity in educational psychology.
Abstract
Eye tracking is a promising research tool for investigating learning processes in immersive virtual reality (IVR). Grounded in cognitive theories of learning, this study proposes a classification of six key learning processes (i.e., cognitive, motivational, affective, social, metacognitive, media-specific) and nine associated constructs (i.e., attention, visual strategy, cognitive load, motivation, emotion, social attention, self-regulation, immersion, usability) measurable through eye tracking in IVR. Using this classification, a systematic review of 38 empirical studies published over a 10-year period (2014 − 2024) was conducted to evaluate the validity of eye-tracking measures. The results showed that the overall validity remains limited with an average score of 48% (± 19%), mainly due to insufficient control of data quality. Measures of cognitive load demonstrated relatively higher validity, likely due to their stronger alignment with performance outcomes. Methodological limitations, such as small sample sizes and dependence on default equipment configurations, were prevalent. To improve validity, future study should strengthen methodological foundations, provide detailed documentation of experimental setups, and use triangulation with complementary data. The classification and validity scoring schemes presented in this study contribute to the theory-driven application of eye tracking in IVR, and offer guidance for improving measurement validity in educational psychology.
Immersive training using virtual reality (VR), 360° video, and CAVE environments shows potential for enhancing perceptual-cognitive skills in sports; however, evidence remains limited and methodologies heterogeneous. This systematic review synthesised quantitative controlled interventions examining immersive training in healthy participants, focusing on measurement tools and study quality. Fourteen studies met inclusion criteria. Methodological quality was evaluated using the Downs and Black checklist. Extracted data included participant demographics, sport discipline and expertise, immersive technology type, training characteristics, targeted cognitive domains, outcome measures, main findings, subjective evaluations, and transfer effects. The assessed cognitive domains included: higher-order processes (n = 9; decision-making, anticipation), attention (n = 3; gaze control, visual search), processing speed (n = 3), and executive function (n = 2; inhibitory control). Behavioural outcomes were commonly used, with three studies employing cognitive assessments (Stroop and Vienna tests). Moderate-to-large effect sizes suggest that immersive training may enhance decision-making and processing speed. However, heterogeneity in study design and limitations in reporting, validity, and statistical power highlight the need for rigorous RCTs with cognitive and transfer measures to clarify the effectiveness and underlying mechanisms of immersive perceptual-cognitive training in sport.
Francesca Celestina Rosanna Gala, S. Pizzoli, E. Cé et al.· Jurnal sport science· 0 citations
This PRISMA‑guided systematic review synthesized evidence on the psychometric properties of immersive head‑mounted display (HMD) virtual reality (VR) tools developed for the ecological assessment of cognition across different developmental stages. The review targeted studies evaluating attention, inhibitory control, memory, and executive functions; published between January 1, 2021, and March 13, 2025, across PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Web of Science. Twenty‑one studies met the inclusion criteria. Convergent validity emerged as the most frequently reported property, appearing in 14 studies (67%) and showing predominantly low‑to‑moderate correlation coefficients (r = .29-0.66). Construct validity was reported less often (3 of 21; 14%) explaining 62%-80.18% of the variance, while test‑retest reliability data were available in only two studies (9.5%), showing overall significant correlation coefficients (r = .18-0.85). Discriminant validity (7 of 21; 33%) was adequate in 5 studies but limited in 2, which reported moderate cross-construct correlations. Predictive validity was assessed in five studies (24%), mainly for psychopathology‑related applications, though most relied on single‑rater parent questionnaires without behavioral or longitudinal validation, with evidence ranging from strong classifier performance (AUC = 0.92) to moderate predictive correlations (r = .38-0.43) and variable diagnostic classification rates. Child and adolescent investigations (9 of 21 studies) consistently demonstrated smaller sample sizes and less comprehensive validation protocols than adult‑focused research. Despite these heterogeneities, findings suggest that HMD‑VR environments can elicit more ecologically relevant cognitive behaviors and may capture performance features difficult to assess with traditional tools. However, the current evidence base is limited by methodological variability, restricted age diversity, and underreporting of core psychometric indices. Future research should adopt standardized validation protocols, include representative developmental samples, and integrate multi‑informant and longitudinal approaches to verify the ecological validity and clinical generalizability of HMD‑VR assessments.
Egoitz Carral-Trucios, Miguel Martinez-Zaldivar, Miguel Saura-Carrasco et al.· Neuropsychology Review· 0 citations
To overcome the limitations of conventional design assessment in capturing instant cognition and visual dynamics, this paper proposes a multimodal evaluation method for visual design effectiveness based on eye-tracking technology. By integrating dynamic region-of-interest sequence analysis with retrospective cognitive attribution, the method captures both the spatial flow and temporal dynamics of visual attention. A contextual task is designed to simulate realistic viewing behavior while maintaining experimental control, guiding participants through goal-oriented browsing under standardized presentation conditions. Dynamic region-of-interest sequence analysis is then used to measure gaze retracing rate and evaluate the clarity of information hierarchy. Retrospective interviews and visual entropy analysis are combined to link objective eye-movement trajectories with subjective semantic interpretation. Experimental results show that the method effectively differentiates design effectiveness under different contrast ratios. The high-contrast group has the shortest initial fixation time (180 ± 38 ms) and the lowest gaze retracing rate (26.1 ± 5.9%). Gaze retracing rate is negatively correlated with semantic comprehension accuracy (r = -0.81), supporting continuous evaluation from perception to cognition.
Xinzhen Zhuo, Zhixiong Hu, Yang Lin· Advanced Electromagnetics· 0 citations
Initial evidence is provided that RMET can be studied as a process-aware assessment task in controlled VR and desktop settings and that VR received higher usability ratings and was also rated as more effortful.
It is concluded that combining eye tracking and Thinking Aloud is feasible without compromising data quality and meaningful for comprehensive HCI evaluation.
Tina Frenzel, Inka Schmitz, Lisa Kerwien et al.· Proceedings of Mensch und Co...· 0 citations
Soccer requires rapid tactical decision-making, perceptual-cognitive processing, and coordinated physical execution, making it a relevant application domain for virtual reality (VR). VR systems integrate head-mounted displays, inertial measurement units, eye-tracking sensors, and electroencephalographic interfaces to support training, assessment, rehabilitation, and engagement. However, evidence remains fragmented across populations, study designs, sensing configurations, and research purposes, limiting conclusions about effectiveness and real-world application. Following PRISMA 2020, this systematic review synthesized 20 empirical studies published between January 2020 and 16 August 2026 involving school, academy, collegiate, and selected indirect adult soccer populations. Studies were classified by sensor modality, tracking configuration, evidence purpose, and outcome domain. Controlled intervention studies reported possible short-term improvements in selected sensorimotor, tactical, perceptual-cognitive, technical, and motivational outcomes. In contrast, cross-sectional and profiling studies showed that some VR tasks distinguished players by expertise, age, or competitive level; these findings support assessment or discriminative validity but do not demonstrate that VR training improves performance. Rehabilitation and injury-related evidence was limited and partly derived from adult or clinical populations, whereas engagement studies suggested potential benefits for motivation, attention, and participation. Six-degrees-of-freedom HMDs, 360° projection systems, eye tracking, and EEG generated different types of evidence, but no study directly compared hardware configurations within the same sample. The main contribution of this review is an integrated evidence-purpose and sensor-based synthesis that distinguishes training effectiveness from assessment validity across student-soccer applications. Overall, evidence remains promising but preliminary because of small and mixed populations, methodological heterogeneity, incomplete technical reporting, possible publication and language bias, short follow-up, and limited transfer to full-match performance. Standardized sensor reporting, controlled interventions, and longitudinal transfer assessments are required. Protocol registration: OSF.
Jaejun Park, Zainab Ghazanfar, Saba Ghazanfar Ali et al.· Italian National Conference...· 0 citations
