Perceived usability and psychological responses to augmented reality feedback in beginner golf: a mixed-methods pilot study

Abstract

Introduction Augmented reality (AR) is increasingly used in physical education, but little is known about learners' psychological responses to AR-assisted visual feedback in beginner golf instruction. Methods This exploratory mixed-methods pilot study examined learner perceptions and preliminary pretest–posttest changes in learning motivation and perceived sources of self-efficacy. Twenty-four undergraduates completed an eight-week multicomponent AR-supported golf program, and six participated in semi-structured interviews. Learning motivation was assessed using ARCS dimensions, and perceived sources of self-efficacy using four Bandura-based dimensions. Results Descriptively, overall learning motivation increased by 0.31 [95% CI (0.04, 0.59)], with Cohen's d = 0.49 [95% CI (0.06, 0.91)]. Attention (d = 0.55, Holm-adjusted p = .052) and Relevance (d = 0.51, Holm-adjusted p = .060) showed moderate positive differences but did not reach statistical significance after adjustment. None of the four sources-of-self-efficacy dimensions reached statistical significance after Holm adjustment. Wilcoxon sensitivity analyses showed a broadly similar pattern, although Attention reached statistical significance after adjustment. Interviewed participants generally described the system as useful and easy to operate, particularly for observing, comparing, and adjusting movements. Discussion These findings provide preliminary information about learner experiences during AR-supported golf instruction rather than evidence of effectiveness. The small sample, single-group design, multicomponent program, and absence of objective performance measures preclude causal conclusions.