Skip to content
#explainable ai Open access

"Fitness" Is Four Quantities, and One of Them Changes Sign When the Population Changes ── The Same Individual Goes from Favoured to Disfavoured by Swapping Its Neighbours ── Across Generations, Only the Logarithm Adds ── [Paper 307]

Aug 2026 · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)
Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation

Abstract

The sentence “its fitness is high” points at one of four different quantities. This paper asks whether the four behave alike──the answer is only one depends on the population. No new mathematical theorem and no new law is claimed. Scope of this paper (scope note): No new mathematical theorem and no new law is claimed──absolute and relative fitness, the Malthusian parameter, inclusive fitness, and Hamilton’s rule are all standard. We do not build evolutionary biology──all we use is one division and one logarithm. We do not measure fitness──how W is estimated in real organisms is not treated at all. Only the relations among the definitions are. We do not discuss the theory of selection──we do not enter the Price equation or the dynamics of population genetics. The numbers are invented examples──the W=2.0, 1.0, 3.0 of Section 2 are numbers placed to display the structure, not measurements. We assert nothing about applying Hamilton’s rule──both the definition of relatedness r and the measurement of inclusive fitness are debated. This paper uses only the form of the inequality rB>C. We do not apply it to humans──it is not used to explain behaviour. It is a roll call of definitions. Relation to earlier papers: Paper 292 showed that only the logarithm adds──the Malthusian parameter here is that logarithm, the same structure standing in another field. Paper 240 counted seven things called “mass,” one changing with the direction of the push──“fitness” here is four things, one changing with its neighbours. Paper 112 counted “six distinct roots sharing one rhyme”──this too is several under one word. Paper 194 showed the four means are one family──Section 3 here is a case where which member of that family is used changes the answer. What is added is separating the four by whether they depend on the population, computing that w falls from 1.3333 to 0.8000 and changes sign for one unchanged individual, showing the arithmetic mean 1.25 against the true factor 1.000000, and confirming that two brothers and eight cousins both give 1.0. First, there are four. Absolute fitness W, relative fitness w, the Malthusian parameter m, and inclusive fitness (Section 1). Second, this is the core of the paper. The same individual keeps W=2.0 and m=+0.693147, yet w alone falls from 1.3333 to 0.8000 (Section 2). Third, the sign changes too. Favoured or not is decided at w=1, so the same individual goes from favoured to disfavoured (Section 2). Fourth, across generations only the logarithm adds. The arithmetic mean of W is 1.25, yet the true factor after four generations is 1.000000 (Section 3). Fifth, inclusive fitness counts a different set. Under Hamilton’s rule, two brothers and eight cousins both come to 1.0 (Section 4). Sixth, the separator is what one divided by (Section 5). “Its fitness is high” points at one of four different quantities──absolute fitness W, relative fitness w, the Malthusian parameter m, and inclusive fitness. And only one depends on the population──an individual keeps W=2.0 and m=+0.693147 unchanged, yet swapping its neighbours drops w from 1.3333 to 0.8000. Since w=1 is the boundary, the same individual goes from favoured to disfavoured──having changed in nothing. Across generations there is a second trap──the arithmetic mean of W is 1.25 and looks like growth, while the true factor after four generations is 1.000000. Only the logarithm (the Malthusian parameter) adds, the same structure Paper 292 showed for rates of return. Inclusive fitness counts a different set again──under Hamilton’s rule, two brothers and eight cousins both come to exactly 1.0. One thing separates them──what one divided by, and what one counted. Only the quantity divided by the population mean depends on the population. The dependence enters through the division, not through any property of the organism. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. ----- 「適応度が高い」という一文は、四つの別の量のどれかを指している。本稿が問うのは、その四つは同じ振舞いをするかである──答は、一つだけが集団に依存するである。新しい数学定理も新しい法則も主張しない。 本稿の射程(射程注記):新しい数学定理も新しい法則も主張しない──絶対適応度、相対適応度、マルサス係数、包括適応度、ハミルトン則は、いずれも標準的である。進化生物学を作らない──使うのは一つの割り算と、一つの対数だけである。適応度を測らない──実際の生物で W をどう推定するかは一切扱わない。定義の間の関係だけを扱う。自然選択の理論を論じない──プライス方程式にも、集団遺伝学の動態にも立ち入らない。数値は作った例である──第3節の W=2.0、1.0、3.0 は構造を見せるために置いた数であり、実測ではない。ハミルトン則の適用を主張しない──血縁度 r の定義にも、包括適応度の測り方にも議論がある。本稿は rB>C という不等式の形だけを使う。人間に当てはめない──行動の説明としては使わない。定義の点呼である。既刊との関係:論文292 は足せるのは対数だけだと示した──本稿のマルサス係数はまさにその対数であり、別の分野に同じ構造が立っている。論文240 は「質量」が七つあり、一つは押す向きで変わると数えた──本稿の「適応度」は四つあり、一つは周りで変わる。論文112 は「同じ韻を踏む六つの別根」を数えた──本稿も一語の下の複数である。論文194 は四つの平均が一つの族だと示した──本稿の第4節はその族のどれを使うかで答が変わる場合である。加えたのは四つを「集団に依存するか」で分けたこと、同じ個体の w が 1.3333 から 0.8000 へ落ち符号が変わると計算したこと、W の算術平均 1.25 に対し実際が 1.000000 倍だと示したこと、ハミルトン則で兄弟 2 人といとこ 8 人が同じ 1.0 になると確かめたことである。 第一に、四つある。絶対適応度 W、相対適応度 w、マルサス係数 m、包括適応度である(第2節)。 第二に、これが本稿の芯である。同じ個体の W が 2.0、m が +0.693147 のまま変わらないのに、w だけが 1.3333 から 0.8000 へ落ちる(第3節)。 第三に、符号まで変わる。 w=1 を境に有利・不利が決まるので、同じ個体が有利から不利になる(第3節)。 第四に、世代をまたぐと足せるのは対数だけである。 W の算術平均は 1.25 だが、実際の 4 世代後は 1.000000 倍である(第4節)。 第五に、包括適応度は数える対象が違う。ハミルトン則で、兄弟 2 人といとこ 8 人がどちらも 1.0になる(第5節)。 第六に、分離子は「何で割ったか」である(第6節)。 「適応度が高い」という一文は、四つの別の量のどれかを指している──絶対適応度 W、相対適応度 w、マルサス係数 m、包括適応度である。そして一つだけが集団に依存する──ある個体の W が 2.0、m が +0.693147 のまま変わらないのに、周りを入れ替えるだけで w が 1.3333 から 0.8000 へ落ちる。 w=1 が境なので、同じ個体が有利から不利になる──その個体は何一つ変わっていない。世代をまたぐとまた別の落とし穴がある──W の算術平均は 1.25 で増えるように見えるのに、実際の 4 世代後は 1.000000 倍である。足せるのは対数(マルサス係数)だけであり、これは論文292 が収益率について示したのと同じ構造である。包括適応度はさらに数える集合が違う──ハミルトン則で、兄弟 2 人といとこ 8 人がどちらもちょうど 1.0 になる。分けるものは一つ──何で割ったか、そして何を数えたか。集団に依存するのは、集団平均で割ったものだけである。依存は割り算から入っており、生物の性質から入っているのではない。 作成にあたって:本稿の着想と内容は、著者自身の考察に基づくものです。文章の構成整理や英訳、数式の確認には AI(大規模言語モデル)の助力を得ました。最終的な内容の解釈や誤りがあれば、それらはすべて著者の責に帰します。お気づきの点があれば、ご教示いただければ幸いです。

View source

Similar papers

#artificial intelligence Conference Open access Apr 2020

ECCOLA - a Method for Implementing Ethically Aligned AI Systems

Various recent Artificial Intelligence (AI) system failures, some of which have made the global headlines, have highlighted issues in these systems. These failures have resulted in calls for more ethical AI systems that better take into account their effects on various stakeholders. However, implementing AI ethics into practice is still an on-going challenge. High-level guidelines for doing so exist, devised by governments and private organizations alike, but lack practicality for developers. To address this issue, in this paper, we present a method for implementing AI ethics. The method, ECCOLA, has been iteratively developed using a cyclical action design research approach. The method aims at making the high-level AI ethics principles more practical, making it possible for developers to more easily implement them in practice.

Ville Vakkuri, Kai-Kristian Kemell, P. Abrahamsson · 64 citations · ⚡6
#computer vision Review Apr 2024

AI-powered Code Review with LLMs: Early Results

In this paper, we present a novel approach to improving software quality and efficiency through a Large Language Model (LLM)-based model designed to review code and identify potential issues. Our proposed LLM-based AI agent model is trained on large code repositories. This training includes code reviews, bug reports, and documentation of best practices. It aims to detect code smells, identify potential bugs, provide suggestions for improvement, and optimize the code. Unlike traditional static code analysis tools, our LLM-based AI agent has the ability to predict future potential risks in the code. This supports a dual goal of improving code quality and enhancing developer education by encouraging a deeper understanding of best practices and efficient coding techniques. Furthermore, we explore the model's effectiveness in suggesting improvements that significantly reduce post-release bugs and enhance code review processes, as evidenced by an analysis of developer sentiment toward LLM feedback. For future work, we aim to assess the accuracy and efficiency of LLM-generated documentation updates in comparison to manual methods. This will involve an empirical study focusing on manually conducted code reviews to identify code smells and bugs, alongside an evaluation of best practice documentation, augmented by insights from developer discussions and code reviews. Our goal is to not only refine the accuracy of our LLM-based tool but also to underscore its potential in streamlining the software development lifecycle through proactive code improvement and education.

Z. Rasheed, Malik Abdul Sami, Muhammad Waseem et al. · 62 citations · ⚡3
#computer vision Open access Mar 2024

LLM-based agents for automating the enhancement of user story quality: An early report

In agile software development, maintaining high-quality user stories is crucial, but also challenging. This study explores the use of large language models to automatically improve the user story quality in Austrian Post Group IT agile teams. We developed a reference model for an Autonomous LLM-based Agent System and implemented it at the company. The quality of user stories in the study and the effectiveness of these agents for user story quality improvement was assessed by 11 participants across six agile teams. Our findings demonstrate the potential of LLMs in improving user story quality, contributing to the research on AI role in agile development, and providing a practical example of the transformative impact of AI in an industry setting.

Zheying Zhang, M. Rayhan, Tomas Herda et al. · 48 citations · ⚡4
#computer vision Review Mar 2024

System for systematic literature review using multiple AI agents: Concept and an empirical evaluation

Systematic literature review (SLR) is foundational to evidence-based research, enabling scholars to identify, classify, and synthesize existing studies to address specific research questions. Conducting an SLR is, however, largely a manual process. In recent years, researchers have made significant progress in automating portions of the SLR pipeline to reduce the effort and time required for high-quality reviews; nevertheless, there remains a lack of AI-agent-based systems that automate the entire SLR workflow. To this end, we introduce a novel multi-AI-agent system designed to fully automate SLRs. Leveraging large language models (LLMs), our system streamlines the review process to enhance efficiency and accuracy. Through a user-friendly interface, researchers specify a topic; the system then generates a search string to retrieve relevant academic papers. Next, an inclusion/exclusion filtering step is applied to titles relevant to the research area. The system subsequently summarizes paper abstracts and retains only those directly related to the field of study. In the final phase, it conducts a thorough analysis of the selected papers with respect to predefined research questions. This paper presents the system, describes its operational framework, and demonstrates how it substantially reduces the time and effort traditionally required for SLRs while maintaining comprehensiveness and precision. The code for this project is available at: https://github.com/GPT-Laboratory/SLR-automation .

Malik Abdul Sami, Z. Rasheed, Kai-Kristian Kemell et al. · 43 citations · ⚡2
#computer vision Feb 2024

Can Large Language Models Serve as Data Analysts? A Multi-Agent Assisted Approach for Qualitative Data Analysis

Context: Manual qualitative data analysis is time-intensive and can compromise validity and replicability, affecting analysis design, implementation, and reporting. Large Language Models (LLMs) enable human-bot collaboration in Software Engineering (SE), but their potential for qualitative data analysis in SE remains largely unexplored. Objective: The objective of this study is to design and develop an LLM-based multi-agent system that synergizes human decision support with AI to automate various qualitative data analysis approaches. Methods: We used LLM-based multi-agents systems to assist the qualitative data analysis process, deploying 27 agents, each responsible for a specific task, such as text summarization, initial code generation, and extracting themes and patterns. Results: The main findings are: (1) the LLM-based multi-agent system accelerates the qualitative data analysis process, (2) the system effectively automates tasks such as text summarization, initial code generation, and theme extraction, and (3) the publicly accessible code facilitates validation and further evaluation. Conclusion: The proposed LLM-based multi-agent system automates qualitative data analysis process, creating opportunities for researchers and practitioners. Future improvements focus on enhancing multilingual performance and integrating continuous expert feedback. The source code of proposed system and system details can be found here: https://github.com/GPT-Laboratory/Qualitative-Analysis-with-an-LLM-Based-Agentts

Z. Rasheed, Muhammad Waseem, Aakash Ahmad et al. · 40 citations
#artificial intelligence Conference Open access Jun 2018

The Key Concepts of Ethics of Artificial Intelligence

The growing influence and decision-making capacities of Autonomous systems and Artificial Intelligence in our lives force us to consider the values embedded in these systems. But how ethics should be implemented into these systems? In this study, the solution is seen on philosophical conceptualization as a framework to form practical implementation model for ethics of AI. To take the first steps on conceptualization main concepts used on the field needs to be identified. A keyword based Systematic Mapping Study (SMS) on the keywords used in AI and ethics was conducted to help in identifying, defying and comparing main concepts used in current AI ethics discourse. Out of 1062 papers retrieved SMS discovered 37 re-occurring keywords in 83 academic papers. We suggest that the focus on finding keywords is the first step in guiding and providing direction for future research in the AI ethics field.

Ville Vakkuri, P. Abrahamsson · 39 citations · ⚡2

Related blog posts