Altered follicular immunity in secondary lymphoid organs is associated with interferon hyperactivity in Down syndrome

Abstract

Down syndrome, caused by trisomy 21, is characterized by chronic interferon-associated inflammation and immune dysregulation, yet the contribution of human secondary lymphoid organs to shaping this immune landscape remains unclear. Using multimodal single-cell and spatial profiling of human tonsils, we identify extensive remodeling of immune organization in trisomy 21. CD4⁺ T cells are skewed away from canonical follicular helper (TFH) programs toward inflammatory TFH1-like and cytotoxic helper states enriched for interferon-responsive transcriptional programs. Tonsillar TFH cells exhibit increased interferon-γ and interleukin-21 production, indicating inflammatory skewing toward type 1 helper immunity. These alterations are accompanied by changes in dendritic cell and CD8⁺ T-cell compartments, reduced follicular size, increased extrafollicular TFH1–B-cell proximity and altered B-cell differentiation trajectories. Together, our findings identify trisomy 21 as a unique human context to investigate how chronic interferon-associated inflammation reshapes lymphoid tissue organization and adaptive immune cell fate decisions.