Aug 2026· GLOBAL JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH· pp. 1187· 0 citations
TL;DR
This review summarizes the current knowledge on breast cancer, including its epidemiology, anatomy and biology, etiological factors, molecular pathogenesis, diagnostic approaches, and clinically relevant biomarkers, while highlighting recent advances in antibody-drug conjugates, PARP inhibitors, nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, artificial intelligence, and precision medicine.
Abstract
Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy and a leading cause of cancer-related mortality among women worldwide. Its complex molecular heterogeneity, diverse clinical presentation, and therapeutic resistance continue to pose significant challenges to effective disease management. Advances in molecular biology and precision oncology have substantially improved the understanding of breast cancer pathogenesis, enabling earlier diagnosis and the development of personalized treatment strategies. This review summarizes the current knowledge on breast cancer, including its epidemiology, anatomy and biology, etiological factors, molecular pathogenesis, diagnostic approaches, and clinically relevant biomarkers. It further discusses established therapeutic modalities, including surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, endocrine therapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, while highlighting recent advances in antibody-drug conjugates, PARP inhibitors, nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, artificial intelligence, and precision medicine. These emerging therapeutic approaches have demonstrated considerable potential in improving treatment efficacy, reducing systemic toxicity, and overcoming drug resistance. Despite these advances, tumor heterogeneity, metastatic progression, and treatment resistance remain major barriers to achieving optimal clinical outcomes. Continued research focusing on biomarker discovery, molecular profiling, and innovative therapeutic strategies is essential for advancing personalized breast cancer management and improving patient survival and quality of life.
Cancer remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide
despite remarkable advances in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. The rapid
development of molecular biology, precision medicine, immunotherapy, artificial
intelligence, and genomic technologies has transformed the landscape of modern
oncology, enabling more individualized and effective patient care. Recent
breakthroughs in liquid biopsy, next-generation sequencing, targeted therapies,
immune checkpoint inhibitors, and AI-assisted clinical decision-making have
significantly improved diagnostic accuracy, therapeutic efficacy, and survival
outcomes across multiple cancer types. However, numerous challenges persist,
including tumor heterogeneity, treatment resistance, immune-related adverse events,
limited accessibility to innovative therapies, high healthcare costs, and disparities in
cancer care across different regions. Furthermore, integrating multi-omics
technologies, digital pathology, and real-world evidence into routine clinical practice
requires standardized protocols and robust clinical validation. This review summarizes
the most significant advances in contemporary clinical oncology, discusses current
limitations affecting cancer management, and highlights emerging technologies that
are expected to shape the future of personalized cancer treatment. The continued
integration of genomics, AI-driven diagnostics, biomarker-guided therapies, and
multidisciplinary clinical approaches is anticipated to improve patient outcomes while
promoting precision oncology as the new standard of cancer care.
Ulykbek Daurenov, Dastan Turdykul, Dana Suyunbay et al.· International Scientific Uni...· 0 citations
Cancer remains one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide and it creates a continuous need for more effective and personalized treatment strategies. Targeted cancer therapy has changed the field of oncology by focusing on specific molecular abnormalities involved in tumor growth, survival, and progression. By selectively interfering with cancer-related molecular pathways, targeted therapies can improve treatment precision and reduce unnecessary damage to normal tissues. Precision oncology brings together molecular diagnostics, pharmacogenomics, biomarker testing, and companion diagnostics to support individualized treatment selection and improve clinical outcomes. This narrative review summarizes recent pharmacological advances in targeted cancer therapy and examines their role in precision oncology. A structured literature search was conducted using major scientific databases and authoritative sources, with emphasis on peer-reviewed articles, clinical studies, and international guidance related to targeted therapies, molecular biomarkers, pharmacogenomics, and precision medicine. The review covers the molecular basis of precision oncology, major classes of targeted anticancer agents, predictive biomarkers, companion diagnostics, and clinical applications across different cancer types. Mechanisms responsible for drug resistance and emerging therapeutic strategies are also discussed. Recent developments in antibody-drug conjugates, liquid biopsy, multi-omics technologies, and artificial intelligence are highlighted for their potential contribution to more personalized cancer care. Several challenges continue to affect the clinical use of targeted therapies like drug resistance, tumor heterogeneity, limited access to molecular testing, and the high cost of treatment. Additionally, progress in fields of molecular pharmacology, biomarker-guided treatment, and innovative therapeutic strategies may expand the clinical applications of precision oncology. Overall, targeted cancer therapy gradually strengthens personalized cancer management and remains an important area for future oncology research and clinical practice.
Nataraj Palaniyappan, Vijayakumar Murugesan, Kannan Arumugam et al.· International journal of med...· 0 citations
A comprehensive overview of emerging and targeted therapeutic strategies in colorectal cancer, with emphasis on their molecular basis and clinical relevance, highlights a shift toward precision oncology for improved management of colorectal cancer.
Debgopal Ganguly, Ananta Choudhury, Himangshu Deka et al.· Clinical and Translational O...· 0 citations
Due to high incidence, aggressive progression, and limited therapeutic efficacy, lung, pancreatic, and colorectal cancer represent a significant share of cancer-related deaths. Cancer remains a major cause of global morbidity and mortality. Despite considerable progress in traditional treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, challenges like drug resistance, systemic toxicity, tumor heterogeneity, and recurrence continue to hinder long-term success. Therefore, the identification, study, and creation of new chemical compounds have become a promising approach to improving cancer treatment outcomes. By integrating current knowledge on chemical compound development and mechanistic insights across these three major cancer types, this review identifies existing research gaps, summarizes recent therapeutic advances, and outlines future directions for the rational design of safer and more effective anticancer agents. The findings presented herein are expected to support researchers and clinicians in advancing precision oncology and developing next-generation therapeutics for improved patient outcomes. With cancer being the rising cause of morbidity and mortality in the world today challenges the global health systems. Cancer is often diagnosed at advanced stages and possesses poor prognosis due to cancer having high metastatic potential and limited response to treatment therapies. The process of oncology despite extensive advancement such as chemotherapy regimens faces issues of drug resistance, systemic toxicity and lack of ability to detect tumor specificity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the development of chemical compounds targeting lung, pancreatic, and colorectal cancers. It discusses the structural diversity, biological activities, and molecular mechanisms of natural products, synthetic molecules, and semisynthetic derivatives with demonstrated anticancer potential. Particular emphasis is placed on their interactions with key signaling pathways involved in tumor initiation and progression.
Peer Review History:
Received 7 April 2026; Reviewed 11 May 2026; Accepted 9 June; Available online 15 July 2026
Academic Editor: Prof. Cyprian Ogbonna ONYEJI, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, conyeji@oauife.edu.ng
Reviewers:
Dr. Fátima Morales Marín, University of Murcia, Spain, fatima.morales@um.es
Dr. George Zhu, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran, sansan4240732@163.com
N. Zaidi· Universal Journal of Pharmac...· 0 citations
Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer and a
leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Despite significant advances in therapy, tumour heterogeneity, drug resistance, and treatment-associated toxicity remain major
challenges in clinical management. The shift from conventional systemic therapies to targeted and precision medicine approaches based on biomarkers has revolutionized the
breast cancer treatment landscape.
This narrative review was conducted using broad search terms across PubMed,
Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, covering publications from 2013 to 2025.
The search strategy included terms such as breast cancer, endocrine therapy, HER2-
targeted therapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, nanomedicine, pharmacogenomics, predictive biomarkers, and precision medicine. Phase I–III clinical trials, translational studies, and high-impact peer-reviewed publications were included. Emphasis was placed on
the quality and relevance of the evidence rather than on comprehensive inclusion of all
available studies.
The introduction of novel endocrine therapies and HER2-targeted treatments has
significantly improved survival outcomes for patients with hormone receptor-positive and
HER2-positive breast cancer. Although treatment benefits vary among patients, the therapeutic landscape has expanded considerably with the development of PARP inhibitors,
trastuzumab-based antibody–drug conjugates (T-DXd), and CDK4/6 inhibitors. Emerging
approaches, including gene therapy and immunotherapy, have also shown promise, although clinical evidence continues to evolve. Meanwhile, molecular subtyping based on
predictive biomarkers has become increasingly important, with markers such as ESR1
and PIK3CA mutations, BRCA mutations, HER2-low status, and PD-L1 expression being
used to guide treatment selection. This approach supports more personalized therapeutic
decisions, moving beyond the traditional one-size-fits-all model.
Despite substantial progress in improving therapeutic outcomes, several challenges continue to limit clinical effectiveness, including acquired resistance, tumour heterogeneity, the lack of standardized biomarkers, and economic constraints. Addressing
these limitations will require the integration of multi-omics profiling, real-time molecular
monitoring, and adaptive precision medicine algorithms to optimize treatment sequencing
and improve patient outcomes.
Breast cancer management has increasingly shifted toward precision oncology, driven by advances in molecular diagnostics and targeted therapeutic interventions.
The continued development of predictive biomarkers, together with ongoing research into
combination therapies and translational studies, is expected to play a critical role in determining the future success of personalized medicine approaches.
Among the leading causes of cancer-related morbidity and mortality worldwide, breast
cancer presents fundamental challenges, such as tumor heterogeneity and therapeutic resistance. The
tumor microenvironment (TME), comprising stromal components, signaling molecules, immune
cells, and the extracellular matrix, has demonstrated a pivotal role in tumor progression, invasion, and
therapeutic response. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the state-of-the-art and novel
therapeutic strategies developed to reprogram the TME in breast cancer. From clinically established
treatments, such as endocrine therapy, antibody-drug conjugates, and HER2-targeted therapy, to
emerging agents, such as siRNA-mediated gene silencing, nanomedicine, and immunotherapy, each
class of therapeutic strategy, along with the corresponding clinical and preclinical outcomes, is detailed
by category. The evidence for and impact of TME heterogeneity and differences in molecular
subtypes on therapeutic efficiency are highlighted, and biomarker-guided patient stratification is further
emphasized to support precision therapy. Mechanistic challenges, such as immunosuppression,
ECM remodeling, and hypoxia-associated resistance, were analyzed, and mechanistic conflicts or
synergistic interactions between strategies were identified. Tumor microbiome modification and AIdriven
discovery of novel biomarkers are presented as emerging perspectives in TME-targeting therapy.
Despite significant advances, translation barriers, such as the lack of predictive biomarkers and
the divergence in therapeutic outcomes between patients and animal models, are critically reviewed
and discussed. The integration of TME-targeted and individualized therapeutic strategies may offer
promising prospects toward achieving durable clinical outcomes in breast cancer treatment.
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