Xenoestrogens and Microplastics as Environmental Endocrine Disruptors: Mechanisms, Health Effects, and Relevance to Physical Activity

Abstract

Background. Xenoestrogens and microplastics are widespread environmental contaminants with potential endocrine-disrupting effects. Their exposure may interfere with hormonal signaling and contribute to disturbances in reproductive, metabolic, thyroid, and developmental processes. Aim. The aim of this review was to summarize current evidence on the sources, mechanisms, and health effects of xenoestrogens and microplastics, with particular emphasis on their relevance to physical activity. Materials and methods. A narrative literature review was conducted based on available human, animal, and in vitro studies addressing exposure to xenoestrogens, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, microplastics, and nanoplastics, as well as their potential endocrine and health effects. Results. Xenoestrogens and plastic-associated chemicals are encountered through food, drinking water, cosmetics, household products, indoor environments, and other consumer materials, mainly via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Current evidence suggests potential associations with impaired male and female reproductive health, altered thyroid function, metabolic disturbances, and adverse pregnancy-related outcomes. In physically active populations, limited evidence indicates possible associations between selected EDCs and anaerobic performance, while sports supplements may represent an additional source of estrogenically active compounds. However, the available evidence is heterogeneous and largely observational or derived from animal and in vitro studies. Conclusions. Xenoestrogens and microplastics may contribute to endocrine disruption and have potential implications for reproductive, metabolic, thyroid, and exercise-related health. However, causal relationships remain insufficiently established. Further longitudinal human studies are needed to determine the clinical relevance of these exposures, particularly in physically active populations.