Facile electrophoretic deposition of diverse functional materials for scalable electrode and photoelectrode fabrication
Abstract
Electrophoretic deposition (EPD) offers a scalable, solution-processable and binder-free route for assembling functional electrode films, yet its applicability across chemically diverse materials remains largely unexplored. In this study, we present a facile EPD platform for the rapid fabrication of electrodes and photoelectrodes from more than 20 functional materials, including carbon nanostructures, polymeric semiconductors, metal oxides, chalcogenides, nitrides, porous metal–organic frameworks, covalent organic frameworks and hybrid composites. Optimised deposition recipes are established for each material by controlling suspension chemistry, charging agents, applied voltage and deposition time. For photoactive materials, the photocurrent response is used as a practical descriptor to evaluate film quality and guide loading optimisation. Structural characterisation by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy confirms uniform coatings, controlled morphologies, and intimate contact between deposited materials and conductive substrates. The versatility of the method is further validated by conformal deposition on both indium tin oxide (ITO) and porous carbon paper substrates, highlighting its compatibility with diverse electrode architectures. We also clarify the role of iodine and citric acid as charging agents for stabilising suspensions and ensuring reproducible deposition. Overall, this work demonstrates EPD as a versatile and scalable approach for integrating a wide range of functional materials into binder-free electrodes for photoelectrochemical and catalytic applications.