Jul 2026· IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Parallel Distributed Computing· 0 citations· 25 references
Computer Science
TL;DR
A comparative review of five blockchain implementations that incorporate PQC mechanisms across multiple platforms, including Hyperledger Fabric, Ethereum, and LACChain, shows that straightforward replacement of classical signatures at the identity layer can substantially increase certificate sizes in some implementations leading to measurable reductions in throughput and increases in transaction latency.
Abstract
Distributed ledger technologies (DLTs) form critical infrastructure for decentralized applications, yet their security relies heavily on classical asymmetric cryptographic primitives that are vulnerable to quantum attacks. Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) provides candidate algorithms designed to resist such threats, but integrating these schemes into operational blockchain systems introduces significant architectural and performance trade-offs. This paper presents a comparative review of five blockchain implementations that incorporate PQC mechanisms across multiple platforms, including Hyperledger Fabric, Ethereum, and LACChain. We classify these systems using an architectural taxonomy based on the layer at which PQC is integrated, including identity-layer, key-generation, and consensus-layer modifications. To enable cross-study comparison, we apply relative delta normalization (Δ) to isolate the performance overhead introduced by PQC from differences in experimental environments. Our analysis shows that straightforward replacement of classical signatures at the identity layer can substantially increase certificate sizes by up to 925% in some implementations leading to measurable reductions in throughput and increases in transaction latency. In contrast, approaches that redesign consensus mechanisms using techniques such as identity-based encryption and aggregate signatures can mitigate these costs and, in some cases, improve throughput relative to classical baselines. These findings highlight key trade-offs between cryptographic security levels and system performance, providing practical insights for the design of scalable quantum-resistant blockchain systems.
The study evaluates major post-quantum cryptographic primitives, assesses their suitability for blockchain environments, and proposes a layered architecture grounded in crypto-agility, defense-in-depth, and forward secrecy.
This paper introduces Data Communities as a novel paradigm for privacy-preserving, blockchain-enabled cooperative digital infrastructures, formalized within the Cooperative Digital Infrastructure (CDI) framework and formalizes privacy guarantees through an adversarial model encompassing classical, quantum, insider, and governance-level threats.
With the development of quantum computing, classical cryptosystems (RSA, ECDSA) that ensure the security of distributed ledgers face an existential threat. This paper examines protocols for protecting personal data (PD) in blockchain, taking into account the “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later” strategy. We propose and formalize a family of protocols designed for storing and exchanging personal data in blockchain systems. The article describes in detail approaches to software implementations of smart contracts for the Ethereum (using ECIES (Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption Scheme) and Keccak-256) and Hyperledger Fabric 2.5 (integrating NIST post-quantum standards: ML-KEM (Module-Lattice-Based Key Encapsulation Mechanism) and ML-DSA (Module-Lattice-Based Digital Signature Algorithm)) platforms based on the developed protocols. For all developed protocols, a Threat Agent Model (TAM) is presented, threat scenarios are examined, and resilience to typical attack scenarios is demonstrated. A comparative analysis of computational efficiency and overhead is conducted. The results show that using lattice cryptography provides high performance, but the 50-fold increase in signature size makes direct implementation of PQC (Post-Quantum Cryptography) in Layer 1 public networks economically unfeasible. A hybrid model and the use of Layer 2 to ensure quantum resistance are proposed.
E. Ishchukova, K. Romanenko, S. Petrenko et al.· The Scientist· 0 citations
Modern blockchain systems impose distinct cryptographic requirements, including pairing-based signatures for Ethereum, multi-scalar multiplication (MSM) for zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs), and post-quantum migration, which existing hardware implementations largely overlook. In this paper, we present a PRISMA 2020-compliant systematic review that analyzes Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) implementations of Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) and Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) from 2018 to 2025. We evaluate these across four blockchain node categories: full nodes, light clients, ZKP provers, and validators. From 688 initial records, rigorous screening yielded 56 FPGA implementations, 16 ASIC designs, and 3 hybrid architectures. Our findings reveal critical gaps between academic research and deployment reality: there is minimal hardware support for the pairing-friendly curves essential for Layer-2 scaling and zkRollups, as well as a lack of hybrid architectures preparing for the imminent post-quantum transition. Performance analysis shows that FPGAs achieve moderate throughput with high energy efficiency (hundreds to thousands of operations per joule), while ASICs reach significantly higher performance at substantially greater costs. PQC schemes consistently exhibit notable area overhead and memory consumption. Crucially, side-channel security remains underaddressed, with no implementations achieving both high performance and validated resistance. To bridge these gaps, we extract four security-aware design patterns, establish a platform selection framework integrating throughput-cost-security trade-offs, and identify five research priorities: standardized benchmarking, hybrid architectures, validated security-performance co-design, energy-proportional implementations, and protocol-hardware co-optimization.
The inherent challenge of balancing scalability, security, and decentralization – commonly termed the blockchain trilemma – continues to hinder the adoption of distributed systems. This paper presents InternxtChain, a decentralized storage framework designed to address this trilemma through a novel integration of erasure-coded sharding, zero-knowledge succinct non-interactive arguments of knowledge (zk-SNARKs), and a sharded Proof-of-Storage consensus mechanism. By leveraging aggregated BLS-381 signatures and distributed redundancy protocols, the framework achieves a throughput of 2,800 transactions per second with a latency of 420 milliseconds across 1,024 nodes, surpassing Filecoin by a factor of 3.5 and Ethereum’s capacity by 165 times. The system maintains 99.9% data integrity even under adversarial conditions involving 30% Byzantine nodes. Additionally, InternxtChain reduces storage costs to $0.002 per gigabyte, representing an 85% reduction compared to centralized alternatives like AWS S3. Empirical evaluations demonstrate linear scalability to 4,200 transactions per second with 2,048 nodes, alongside hardware affordability at $180 per node. These advancements not only outperform decentralized platforms in throughput by 2.8 times but also ensure GDPR-compliant data sovereignty, positioning InternxtChain as a pioneering solution for Web3 ecosystems seeking to harmonize enterprise-grade performance with decentralized trustlessness.
Saha Reno· South African Computer Journ...· 1 citation
Popularized by the Bitcoin cryptocurrency, blockchain technology establishes a decentralized digital framework that utilizes cryptographic and consensus protocols to secure data against unauthorized modification. Consequently, blockchain has found broad adoption across diverse fields, including finance, data management, healthcare, and digital asset governance. In the quantum computing era, a paramount objective for blockchain is to preserve its foundational advantages of cryptographic integrity and decentralized fault-tolerant resilience. In principle, quantum digital signatures and quantum Byzantine agreement protocols offer foundational security guarantees and tolerate up to one-half of malicious nodes for blockchain. However, the practical realization of such a quantum-enhanced blockchain remains a significant and multifaceted challenge. Here, we propose and experimentally demonstrate a fully operational hybrid quantum blockchain architecture built on photonic integrated circuits and deployed over commercially available classical telecommunications infrastructure. The system achieves a fault tolerance of nearly one-half, surpassing the classical limit, while reaching consensus on a timescale of seconds. A deployed food traceability application validates the practicality of the proposed architecture, achieving a throughput of approximately 500 transactions per second. This work establishes a foundation for practical quantum blockchains, enabling secure, scalable, and decentralized information processing in the emerging quantum era.
Yongqiang Du, Chenkai Weng, Feng Xie et al.· 0 citations