Jul 2026· International Journal of Science and Research Archive· 0 citations
TL;DR
This review systematically traces how mobile network technology has evolved from second-generation (2G) through fifth-generation (5G) systems, looks at how each generation has been applied in smart grid settings, and sets out what each generation could and could not do.
Abstract
Their wide coverage, scalability and cost-effective infrastructure have made mobile cellular networks key enablers of smart grid modernization. This review systematically traces how mobile network technology has evolved from second-generation (2G) through fifth-generation (5G) systems, looks at how each generation has been applied in smart grid settings, and sets out what each generation could and could not do.
Early on, second-generation GSM and GPRS supported basic Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) and simple SCADA polling, but high latency and unidirectional communication constrained what these networks could realistically support. Third-generation UMTS and HSPA improved on this by introducing bidirectional Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), including remote connect and disconnect capability, which in turn made large-scale smart meter rollouts practical. With fourth-generation latency dropped to 20–50 ms, enabling real-time distribution automation and Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) streaming. Fifth-generation NR takes this further still, introducing Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communication (URLLC) with latency as low as 1–5 ms, along with network slicing and Massive Machine-Type Communication (mMTC), which together address most of the remaining barriers to wireless grid protection.
Global pilot projects across Europe, China, and North America have validated these capabilities in live grid environments. Still Mobile communications for Smart Grids are facing challenges, including rural coverage economics, cybersecurity threats and legacy system migration. Each generation has systematically resolved the critical limitations of its predecessor, with 5G representing the most comprehensive wireless solution for smart grid applications to date.
This survey formally categorizes state-of-the-art DTN architectures into passive monitoring twins and active control twins, and provides an in-depth evaluation of their underlying enabling technologies, specifically ray-tracing, reconfigurable intelligent surfaces, artificial intelligence, and mobile edge computing.
Charalampos Oikonomidis, E. T. Michailidis, N. Miridakis· 0 citations
A reproducible pre-deployment analytics framework for physical/MAC-layer assessment of RF900, G3-PLC, GPRS CS2–CS3, hybrid PLC–GPRS, and renewable-event communication profiles is presented.
A. Villarroel, Milton Ruiz· Electronics· 0 citations
With the rapid advancement of IoT technologies and the continuous expansion of smart home application scenarios, users are demanding higher performance from their home networks in terms of bandwidth, latency, and reliability. Traditional home network architectures based on copper cabling or single Wi-Fi routers can no longer meet the high-performance connectivity requirements essential for whole-home intelligence[1]. This paper proposes a whole-home intelligent solution centered on FTTR (Fiber-to-the-Room) technology, which extends fiber optics directly into every functional room and deploys dedicated fiber access points to establish a gigabit-capable, low-interference, highly stable all-optical coverage network[2]. This approach fundamentally overcomes critical limitations of conventional wireless signals—such as severe attenuation through walls, coverage dead zones, and bandwidth bottlenecks. Furthermore, the solution integrates a unified intelligent device management platform that enables centralized configuration, real-time status monitoring, and scenario-based coordinated control across heterogeneous devices throughout the home, including lighting systems, security and surveillance equipment, environmental sensing and regulation units, and multimedia entertainment terminals[3]. Real-world deployment test results demonstrate that, in typical residential environments, this solution achieves 100% room-level network coverage, increases average available bandwidth by 85%comparedtolegacy networks, reduces end-to-end communication latency by over 60%, and consistently maintains command response times for critical smart devices within 200 milliseconds. Consequently, the system significantly enhances overall operational stability, interaction responsiveness, and user experience, providing a robust and reliable network foundation for future advanced smart home applications.
Ge Wen, Jie Long, Xiangqi Kong et al.· International Conference on...· 0 citations
In response to the fast-paced development of information technologies in Saudi Arabia, there is a high need for high-speed and future-proof wireless communication infrastructure. This paper considers potential approaches for deploying 5G bands capable of meeting national requirements in terms of connecting smart cities, implementing industry automation, supporting Internet of Things solutions, and preparing for 6G development according to the vision of Saudi Arabia 2030. The use of low-band, medium-band, and high-band frequency ranges in the millimeter wavelength spectrum for ensuring efficient coverage and adequate capacity is the focus of this report. The significance of spectrum management, radio access network optimization, small cell dense placement, fiber backhaul, network slicing, massive MIMO, carrier aggregation, and energy-efficient deployment of 5G infrastructure would be discussed in detail. Some of the key challenges of implementing 5G include problems of propagation loss, site acquisition, interferences, indoor coverage, efficiency, and regulation. Thus, an effective approach to planning of wireless networks requires careful assessment of the current telecommunications market, existing problems, and future demands for digital infrastructure.
Efficient long-term network evolution is becoming increasingly critical in dense 5G-Advanced and beyond cellular systems, where persistent traffic imbalances and localized congestion pose significant challenges that conventional short-term radio resource management alone cannot fully mitigate. This paper proposes a digital twin (DT)-enabled non-real-time (NRT) network evolution framework integrated with a large language model (LLM). Within this architecture, the digital twin provides a high-fidelity, controllable environment for evaluating infrastructure actions, while the LLM serves as a strategic orchestration engine that recommends cost-efficient network upgrades based on observed network states. Unlike traditional optimization methods that require exhaustive mathematical reformulations for each specific scenario, the proposed framework leverages the reasoning capabilities of LLMs to interpret operator objectives and constraints in natural language, generating structured evolution plans. The considered NRT action space encompasses antenna upgrades, bandwidth expansion, and new base station (BS) deployment. A techno-economic formulation is introduced to jointly evaluate load reduction performance and overall economic expenditure. Numerical results in a dense cellular scenario demonstrate that the framework effectively reduces peak resource utilization and provides diverse, coordinated evolution strategies tailored to varying network conditions.
Yukai Wang, Janghee Woo, G. Hahm et al.· International Conference on...· 0 citations
Bridging the rural digital divide remains a persistent global challenge despite the widespread deployment of 4G and 5G cellular networks. This paper presents a comprehensive survey and quantitative analysis of network architectures for enabling future sixth-generation (6G) services in rural and underserved regions. Drawing on a structured review of peer-reviewed studies, 3GPP and ITU-R standards, O-RAN Alliance specifications, and documented field deployments, we classify and evaluate four architectural categories: terrestrial networks (TNs), non-terrestrial networks (NTNs), hybrid TN–NTN systems, and Open Radio Access Network (O-RAN)-based deployments. Each architecture is assessed against International Mobile Telecommunications for 2030 (IMT-2030) performance targets for throughput, end-to-end round-trip latency, energy efficiency (expressed as energy consumed per bit), coverage, and reliability. Unlike prior surveys that address individual components in isolation, such as satellite backhaul, microwave transport, or O-RAN frameworks, this paper provides a unified, deployment-driven, and quantitatively grounded treatment of all four architectural classes under rural 6G constraints. The survey analyzes key enabling technologies including Integrated Access and Backhaul (IAB), High-Altitude Platform Stations (HAPSs), Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite systems, Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces (RIS), and AI-native orchestration frameworks. Analytical models are presented for RIS-assisted link enhancement and AI-native RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) control utility. A quantitative, normalized key performance indicator (KPI) comparison across cost efficiency, spectral utilization, power consumption, and deployment scalability is grounded in a transparent scoring methodology, extended with a multi-criteria (AHP) architecture ranking, a weight-sensitivity analysis, and a parametric techno-economic cost-per-user comparison, and supported by an extensive review of technical, industrial, and policy literature. Beyond current deployments, this work identifies emerging technologies, including direct-to-device non-terrestrial access, programmable radio environments, and intelligent RAN control, that are expected to play a central role in extending sustainable rural 6G connectivity. A practical deployment decision framework and scenario-driven architectural guidance are provided for researchers, network operators, and policymakers pursuing inclusive, future-ready rural connectivity.
Souradeep Deb, Nishith D. Tripathi, Jeffrey H. Reed· IEEE Open Journal of the Com...· 0 citations
