What Drives Learners to Keep Using Chatbots? An Extended TCT Modeling in Higher Education

Teachers’ Adoption of ChatGPT in Higher Education: Integrating Technology Acceptance, Trust, and Perceived Risk

In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI) technologies have become increasingly prominent in education, with ChatGPT emerging as a notable tool that enhances learning experiences. This study explores teachers’ attitudes towards the adoption of ChatGPT as a learning technology, focusing on its potential benefits, limitations and implications for education. A quantitative approach was employed, involving an online survey targeting university educators. The survey assessed teachers’ perceptions of ChatGPT in higher education and identified barriers to its implementation. The conceptual framework integrates elements from the Technology Acceptance Model, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology and insights from risk perception theory. Data analysis was conducted using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling with SMART PLS software, ensuring reliability and discriminant validity. Findings indicate that most teachers view ChatGPT as an effective tool for enhancing student motivation, personalised learning and critical thinking. While teaching experience fosters positive perceptions and reduces perceived risks, it does not significantly influence challenges or trust in adoption decisions. Nonetheless, challenges persist, particularly regarding the reliability of information generated by ChatGPT. This study can assist policymakers, educators and technology developers in collaborating to implement practical and ethical AI-enabled tools like ChatGPT. Ultimately, while ChatGPT holds significant potential as an educational technology, its effectiveness hinges on addressing technical and pedagogical challenges.

Critical Thinking and Students’ Intentions to Use Artificial Intelligence Chatbots for Learning: Evidence from Vietnamese Universities

Artificial Intelligence (AI) chatbots are increasingly reshaping learning practices in higher education. This study extends the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) by incorporating critical thinking as a key cognitive antecedent of behavioral intention to use AI chatbots for learning. Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), data collected from Vietnamese university students (n = 100) were analyzed to examine the proposed relationships. The findings indicate that critical thinking is predictively associated with students’ self-reported behavioral intention to use AI chatbots and shows a larger standardized association than traditional TAM factors, including perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and attitude. Attitude toward AI chatbot use also directly predicts behavioral intention and is positively associated with critical thinking, suggesting a potential mediation mechanism. The extended model demonstrates substantial explanatory power in explaining variance in students’ self-reported behavioral intention. Overall, the results highlight critical thinking as an important cognitive factor associated with more reflective and responsible use of AI chatbots in university education. Given the cross-sectional and exploratory design, the findings should be interpreted as predictive rather than causal.

Exploring the Relationship Between Online Learning Motivation and ChatGPT Usage among University ESL Students

Rapid development of Artificial Intelligence (AI), particularly ChatGPT, has transformed online learning motivation and influenced learners' motivation in higher education. With the increasing reliance on AI-assisted tools for academic support, concerns have emerged regarding their influence on learners’ motivation, engagement and learning experiences. Therefore, this study investigated the influence of ChatGPT on learners’ online motivation to learn especially in terms of expectancy, value and social support. This study employed quantitative survey research involving 137 students from various academic fields and levels of study. The research instrument consisted of three sections containing 53 items adapted from Fowler (2018) and Youssef et al. (2024). The findings revealed that learners perceived ChatGPT positively particularly in enhancing critical thinking, academic achievement and student engagement. Furthermore, significant positive relationships were found between ChatGPT and expectancy, value and social support. The findings suggest that when used appropriately, ChatGPT has the potential to support learners’ motivation and engagement in online learning. This study contributes to the growing body of literature on AI-assisted learning and provides useful implications for educators, institutions and further research in regards to the implementation of generative AI in higher education.

Teachers’ adoption of ChatGPT as a supportive tool for lesson planning

AI tools such as ChatGPT have attracted increased interest from educators in diverse teaching settings. Based on the theoretical frameworks of TAM and UTAUT, this study explores the factors influencing the adoption of ChatGPT as a supportive tool for lesson planning and examines how they interact across various teaching contexts. A quantitative study using PLS-SEM was conducted to examine the effects of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and social influence on teachers' intention to use ChatGPT in lesson planning. Data collected from 284 Vietnamese teachers, including both English-speaking and non-English-speaking teachers, revealed that all the factors directly and positively affected the behavioral intention to use ChatGPT and indirectly predicted actual long-term use. This study provides practical implications from the context of the Global South, such as Vietnam, emphasizing the need for international support and international collaboration to enhance not only the usefulness of ChatGPT for lesson planning but also teacher education and technology integration.

AI is Not AI: Interacting With Chatbots in Higher Education and Implications for Ethics, Sustainability, and Institutional Efficiency

Morphological mapping of ChatGPT’s integration in higher education: adoption to impact analysis

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into education has significantly advanced, with ChatGPT emerging as a key technology for transforming learning environments. Prior reviews examined ChatGPT but lacked a multidimensional synthesis of its integration into higher education. This study offers a holistic understanding of ChatGPT’s role and identifies overlooked dimensions to guide future research and practice. This study conducts a critical morphological analysis (MA) to understand how ChatGPT is integrated into global higher education. It draws on six dimensions: user characteristics, ChatGPT adoption, enablers, applications, outcomes and ethical concerns. This study developed a cross-consistency matrix to map existing research patterns and research gaps. Key trends reveal growing attention toward institutional readiness and learning effectiveness, while gaps related to overdependence risks, socio-emotional learning and equitable access remain. Furthermore, thematically grouped future research directions are proposed for key stakeholders in academic settings: students, educators, institutional staff and higher education institutions/policymakers. This study advances previous reviews by moving beyond thematic descriptions toward cross-dimensional analyses. The MA reveals three substantive findings that are invisible to single-dimension reviews: institutional enabler research remains empirically disconnected from measurable learning outcomes; individual user traits, such as anxiety and work avoidance, are rarely examined alongside ethical concern variants; and equity and digital divide concerns are not linked to institutional infrastructure conditions in the literature. These gaps, identified using the cross-consistency matrix, provide a structured and replicable basis for future empirical investigations.